Transparency data

Climate change adaptation reporting fourth round: Forestry Commission

Published 31 January 2025

Applies to England

© Crown copyright 2025

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This publication is available at https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/climate-change-adaptation-reporting-fourth-round-forestry-commission/climate-change-adaptation-reporting-fourth-round-forestry-commission

Report compiled by David White, Emily Fensom, Jonathan Burton, Rob Gazzard and Mark Broadmeadow.

December 2024.

For further information contact:

David White
Woodland and Climate Change Adaptation Adviser
david.white@forestrycommission.gov.uk

Acknowledgements

This review has benefitted from the input of many colleagues within and outside the Forestry Commission, in particular: Dr Eleanor Tew, Gail Atkinson, Chris Waterfield, Chris Reynolds, Stephen Bathgate, Dr Tom Locatelli, Chris Watson, Jon Burgess, Neil Riddle and David Bole.

Executive summary

Adaptation to climate change is essential to secure the services provided by our woodland resource. Since our third round Adaptation Reporting Power report (ARP3) was released:

  • extraordinary payments received in exceptional circumstances were released to replace trees impacted by drought and heatwaves
  • findings of the most destructive European pest of spruce are increasing as the climate of the southeast of England becomes more suitable
  • extreme wind and flood events have affected England’s woodland resource

Woodland net zero, wildlife, water quality, flood protection, access, wellbeing and timber production aspirations will only be achieved if woodland management and creation result in resilient landscapes.

The Forestry Commission has made substantial progress to address climate change risks to forests and challenges previously identified in ARP1 to ARP3.

  1. The fifth edition of the UK Forestry Standard (UKFS) (2023) will enhance resilience and adaptation measures across the sector.
  2. Clear and agreed climate change adaptation guidance is now available, including:
  3. Capability and capacity within the forestry sector workforce to adapt to climate change has been increased through our training, the Forestry Arboriculture Training Fund, and the degree level Professional Forester Apprenticeship Programme.
  4. The availability and diversity of trees for planting has been improved by our suite of tree production, innovation and capital grants.

Challenges highlighted within this ARP include:

  • balancing the demands placed on England’s limited and crowded land
  • persistent use of a limited number of tree species and structural homogeneity increasing woodlands vulnerability to the variety of threats exacerbated by climate change
  • a lack of incentives and sector capability to encourage the use of a wider range of silvicultural systems

Different objective-based approaches to adaptation are appropriate. However, static and strict interpretation of which tree species are native, even extending to regional specifications, is limiting the adaptive capacity of our semi-natural woodlands during a time of dynamic change. Resistance to the planting of conifer species, exacerbated by incentives design which favour slower-growing broadleaf species, is also impacting on the ability to meet net zero targets. This is because 30% of the new woodland planting set out in the statutory tree canopy target should comprise conifer species to meet its net zero contribution.

Stewarding and cherishing centuries-old irreplaceable habitat poses conflicting arguments given the uncertainty associated with implementing adaptive actions. More widely, the resistance to planting a wider range non-native species is limiting adaptation. Lastly, ensuring that sufficient, diverse and appropriate planting stock is available to support ambitions for woodland expansion continues to be a challenge.

The Science and Innovation Strategy for Forestry in Great Britain research programmes continue to improve our understanding of climate risks and mitigating actions. Forestry England’s resilience approach continues to demonstrate adaptive and sustainable forestry. Adaptation will be further embedded as a cornerstone within our strategy through the development of our Environmental Sustainability Strategy and Climate Change Adaptation Strategy.

It is critical that we continue to work closely with the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) to embed forestry and woodland adaptation into the Environmental Land Management (ELM) schemes, the forthcoming Land Use Framework and further policy development.

1. Introduction

1.1 ARP reporting history

The Forestry Commission prepared a Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA) published in March 2012 under the Adaptation Reporting Powers of the Climate Change Act (2008). We were invited to report as: ‘England’s woodlands are important national assets which are both vulnerable to climate change and have a valuable role mitigating its effects’. We produced second and third round ARP reports in 2017 and 2022, but to improve the alignment of adaptation reporting with the statutory cycle for the CCRA and the National Adaptation Programme (NAP), we were asked to submit our fourth-round report (ARP4) by the end of 2024.

1.2 Organisational profile

Forestry Commission and forestry policy

The Forestry Commission is a non-ministerial department sponsored by Defra and overseen by the Forestry Commissioners. Strategic forestry policy in England is the responsibility of Defra. The then Government’s long-term vision for the treescape it wanted to see in England by 2050 and beyond is set out in the Environment Act (2021), Net Zero Strategy (2021) and England Trees Action Plan 2021-2024 (ETAP). A list of relevant policy documents published since ARP3 is given at Annex 1, which provides context for the actions reported here.

Forestry Commission’s strategic objectives

The Forestry Commission comprises Forest Services, Forestry England and Forest Research and sets out its vision and goals in the Thriving for the Future: Forestry Commission Strategy 2023-28. We are tasked to work with a wide range of stakeholders to deliver functions and priorities set out in Defra’s Single Departmental Plan, ETAP, Tree Health Resilience Strategy (2018) and Great Britain Biosecurity Strategy (2023).

We are responsible for:

  • managing the nation’s forests
  • protecting the health of trees across Great Britain from pests and diseases
  • providing world-leading research and analysis
  • promoting forestry training, forestry careers and sustainable forest management
  • expanding, managing and improving woodland and tree cover (through grant processing, administration and advice)
  • regulating forestry in England

The core of the Forestry Commission comprises the Commissioners’ Office – responsible for supporting the Commission and both its agencies with work on parliamentary matters, open information, data protection and governance – and what is known internally as ‘Forest Services.’

Forest Services supports and regulates forestry in England and acts as the government’s forestry and woodland experts, contributing to the past government’s 25 Year Environmental Plan (and Environment Act) objective of being the first generation to leave the environment in a better state than we found it. This is done by encouraging and supporting landowners and the sector to protect, improve, expand and connect people with England’s trees, woods and forests. This part of the Commission is also responsible for protecting tree health across Great Britain (GB) as part of the UK Plant Health Service by agreement with the GB devolved administrations. Since ARP3, a new statutory tree canopy and woodland cover target has been legislated for through the powers of the Environment Act (2021).

Forestry England manages the nation’s forests on behalf of the Forestry Commissioners. The estate covers 253,000 hectares (ha) of land (2% of the total land area of England) including 208,000 ha of wooded habitat. The nation’s forests have more than 68,000 ha of Sites of Special Scientific Interest (of which 94% are in favourable or recovering condition). All the forests and woodlands are independently certified as sustainably managed through the UK Woodland Assurance Standard. The nation’s forests are also the largest outdoor recreation provider (an estimated 300 million visits per year) and timber supplier (approximately 1.2 million m3 timber harvested per year) in England. Forestry England is the country’s largest land manager, employing around 1,200 people.

Forest Research is the research agency of the Forestry Commission and Great Britain’s principal organisation for forestry and tree-related research. It is internationally renowned for the provision of science, research, evidence, data and services in support of sustainable forestry. Forest Research’s vision is to be a world leader in applied forest science and a trusted and recognised provider of expertise, data, products and services for government and the tree, wood, forest and natural resources sectors.

1.3 Governance, management and strategy

Cross-border level governance

Since the previous report (ARP3) there have been no further fundamental changes to the governance of forestry in England. However, the Memorandum of Understanding that covers cross-border functions (research commissioning and monitoring, plant health and the regulation of forest reproductive material (FRM), UK Forestry Standard, Woodland Carbon Code and forestry economic advice) expired on 31 March 2024. It has been agreed that the current document will be rolled over to 31 March 2026, with a refreshed memorandum applying after that date.     

Governance in England

The Forestry Commission is headed by the Board of Commissioners, which consists of a chair and up to 10 other members appointed by His Majesty the King. The Commissioners, through administrative action, have delegated relevant and appropriate functions to the sub-boards of the delivery arms of the Forestry Commission namely Forestry England, Forest Services and Forest Research. Officials from Defra and the devolved administrations act as members of the sub-boards where appropriate. Overall responsibility, however, remains with the Board of Commissioners. In addition, the Forestry Commission Executive Board draws upon the executive leadership of all parts of the Forestry Commission to take strategic decisions on common issues.

The Board of Commissioners has also established a Forestry England and Forest Services Audit and Risk Assurance Committee (ARAC) to support it in assuring itself of the effectiveness of the internal control, governance and risk management frameworks.

Commitment to adaptation and governance concerning climate change

The Forestry Commission Strategy (2023-2028) sets out our commitment to achieve net zero and includes actions specific to climate change adaptation. Our core business managing the nation’s forests drives environmental sustainability and consideration of adaptation to projected climate impacts. These priorities are interwoven with the positive impacts on people and the economy that our work supporting sustainable forest management delivers.

The Forestry Commission is currently developing both an Environmental Sustainability Strategy and a Climate Change Adaptation Strategy with the intention to align with the timescales set within a Net Zero Strategy planned for implementation in 2025. We are working through transition to ISO 14001-2015 standard and re-certification, and are currently partially aligned against the Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures reporting requirements under Phase 1.

The evaluation of Forestry England’s, Forest Services’ and the Commissioners’ Office’s combined performance against the Greening Government Commitments (GGC) is reported in Forestry Commission Annual Report and Accounts 2023-24 pages 31-34. We now exceed the GGC target of a 15% reduction in direct emissions by 2025, but several reported issues remain.

In 2024 the Forestry and Climate Change Partnership, a key delivery partnership for ARP3 actions, elected to increase their remit to work more closely with Defra to implement a revised Tree Health Resilience Strategy (THRS) through combining with the THRS stakeholder group. This will likely widen the group’s vision to include trees outside woodlands. Forestry England, Forest Research and Forest Services anticipate continued active participation in the group, helping government and stakeholders to deliver the new Trees and Woodland Resilience Strategy, once published.

The UK Forest Genetics Resources group was established in 2024 to provide oversight, facilitate information exchange and deliver technical advice and co-ordination of activities covering all aspects of future species selection to inform government policy development and support delivery of resilient woodlands and forests across the UK. In addition to a steering group, 2 sub-groups have been established:

  • species prioritisation and seed and sapling supply technical working group
  • genetic understanding, conservation and use technical working group

The fifth edition of the UK Forestry Standard (2023) strengthened requirements for enhanced resilience and implementation of adaptation measures through UKFS requirements underpinning forestry grants, regulations, certification and the management of the nation’s forests.

2. Understanding risks and challenges

Climate change risk assessment in the Forestry Commission’s ARP4 mirrors ARP3 as a description of climate risks to the organisation and the ability to deliver its objectives. The Board considers climate risk and environmental issues at a strategic level as evidenced through our Thriving for the Future: Forestry Commission Strategy 2023-28 which prioritises climate action. Climate risks are overseen by the ARAC governance structure across the Forestry Commission and delegated to respective bodies – Forest Services, Forestry England, and Forest Research. However, we recognise that more work is needed to strengthen appropriate processes that enable our Board to assess climate risks and impacts for our organisation in coming years.

Within this ARP, discussion of climate change risks (section 2) and our mitigating actions (section 4) are aligned to NAP3 climate risks. Changes and updates to these risks (section 2.2) and uncertainty (section 6) are also highlighted. Risks are addressed in a discussive format for the minor revision from ARP3 to ARP4. A full, formal, risk assessment will be provided in our fifth-round report, building on and updating the comprehensive risk assessment set out in our first ARP report in 2012.

Each successive ARP has reviewed the risks that climate change presents to the functions and activities of the Forestry Commission and there have been no major changes. Note that specific greenhouse gas emissions scenarios/pathways and climate projections have not been considered in detail. The approach has been adopted because of the long timeframe considered for adaptation in forestry and the need for any action to be appropriate to current and future climates. This is consistent with an adaptive approach to woodland management within the public and private sector, focused on the general direction of climate change and that this thinking is incorporated into forest management decisions. We have concluded that a more prescriptive approach would not be appropriate given the uncertainty in how climate change will unfold.    

2.1 Climate change risks relevant to forestry identified in NAP3

The Independent Assessment of UK Climate Risk evidence report identified risks relevant to forestry, which informed the 2023 National Adaptation Programme climate risks and opportunities that are government’s priority actions for the next 5 years. The following are directly associated with, or related to, forestry:

N5 – Risks to natural carbon stores and sequestration from changing climatic conditions (forestry)

N6 – Risks to and opportunities for forestry productivity from extreme events and changing climatic conditions

N8 – Risks to forestry from pests, pathogens, and invasive non-native species

N9 – Opportunities for forestry productivity from new/alternative species becoming suitable

Wider NAP3 risks that also relate to forestry

N1 – Risks to terrestrial species and habitats from changing climatic conditions and extreme events, including temperature change, water scarcity, wildfire, flooding, wind, and altered hydrology

N3 – Opportunities from new species in terrestrial habitats colonisations: facilitate the movement and expansion of native species within the UK in response to climate change opportunities

N4 – Risk to soils from changing climatic conditions, including seasonal aridity and wetness

N5 – Risks to natural carbon stores and sequestration from changing climatic conditions, including temperature change and water scarcity (peatland)

N18 – Risks and opportunities from climate change to landscape character

2.2 Changes in the understanding and interactions of NAP risks

The following section highlights current background information regarding the NAP forestry-related risks.

N1 – Risks to terrestrial species and habitats from changing climatic conditions and extreme events, including temperature change, water scarcity, wildfire, flooding, wind, and altered hydrology (including water scarcity, flooding and saline intrusion)

  1. Forest Research has led a range of projects to increase knowledge about the water-related benefits of woodlands, and to evaluate the costs and benefits of associated investments, which are informing the targeting of woodland creation and development of a Woodland Water Code.
  2. Woodland expansion can pose a threat to ground-water dependent terrestrial ecosystems through using more water than other land covers.
  3. Increasing the connectivity of woodland habitat within the landscape will enhance the ability of more mobile species to migrate as the climate changes.
  4. In most cases, the quality of woodland habitat is enhanced by being brought into management, benefitting woodland species.
  5. Targeted tree planting can reduce floodwater impacts on other habitats by increasing infiltration rates, evaporating and transpiring more water than other land covers and slowing peak flood flows in the floodplain due to the high hydraulic roughness of woodland.

N5 – Risks to natural carbon stores and sequestration from changing climatic conditions (forestry)

  1. Accurate prediction of tree species suitability remains a concern with many woodland owners and managers. This is confounded by the reliance on low resolution soil maps rather than site specific information.
  2. Across the sector persistent use of single species dominated even-aged silviculture continues to risk landscape scale impact. A lack of experienced silviculturists, and incentives to promote change, limit progress away from this dominant silvicultural system.
  3. Tree species-specific data reporting establishment success for most woodland creation schemes is not available.
  4. Although, in general, there is an insufficient diversity of species being planted, where ‘emerging forestry species’ are proposed, silvicultural requirements are rarely considered, and large numbers of tree species are being included in some woodland creation grant applications with limited consideration of their compatibility for intimate planting.
  5. Wildfire remains on the government’s National Security Risk Assessment and National Risk Register and has been defined as a priority risk by Forestry England for the nation’s forests.

N6 – Risks to and opportunities for forestry productivity from extreme events and changing climatic conditions

Use of fine-scale temporal data in process modelling of tree species performance is demonstrating that short-term extreme events, such as drought, present the greatest risk to trees in the UK. Forest Research aims to quantify and predict these risks, and further develop an evidence base for potential adaptation measures to major risks. Updated models within Ecological Site Classification (ESC) version 4.5 suggest that suitability predictions for species are now less pessimistic than those previously modelled. Caution in interpretation is required as this modelled improvement assumes adaptive use of FRM from locations representing analogues for future UK climate and relies on certain representative concentration pathways.

  1. Extraordinary Payments Received in Exceptional Circumstances were released in 2018 and 2022 to fund the replacement of recently planted trees impacted by the 2022 heatwave and drought.
  2. Extensive flooding has become more common in recent years, waterlogging can impact rooting and tree stability and act in-combination with other risks such wind, pest and diseases.
  3. To adapt locally, tree populations need dynamic recruitment on site. 19% and 54% of conifer and broadleaf woodlands are currently unmanaged respectively, limiting the success of site adapted natural regeneration. High densities of deer further limits regeneration due to browsing pressure.
  4. Forestry skills shortages and reductions in forestry education opportunities are limiting the practical step change required to meet future woodland management and creation aspirations.

N8 – Risks to forestry from pests, pathogens, and invasive non-native species

Forestry pests

  1. Novel pests affecting woodlands have increased dramatically. There were 5 pest incursions between 1970 and 2000, compared to 19 between 2000 and 2021. Live plant material import remains the highest risk pathway for pests to arrive in the UK.
  2. The limited richness of our dominant forestry tree species highlights landscape scale susceptibility to several prominent pests.
  3. Between 2021 and 2022, 720 statutory plant health notices, used to require the felling of trees to limit pest/disease spread, were issued across the UK covering 4,000ha of woodland.
  4. An Ips typographus surveillance and eradication programme has been established. The demarcated area has been expanded, within which restrictions are placed on movement, felling and planting of spruce, along with support for landowners dealing with spruce bark beetle outbreaks.
  5. Pests with wide host ranges also pose future threat, for example Xylella fastidiosa.
  6. Surveillance continues for prominent pests through Forest Research’s monitoring and diagnostic work, including annual health checks at national arboreta.
  7. Unsustainable populations of deer and grey squirrels remain an increasing threat to regeneration, woodland creation, woodland management. This is exacerbated in urban environments where management (of squirrels) is problematic.

Compounding factors

  1. The lack of genetic diversity (both within and between species) within the main forest tree populations reduces the capacity to resist and recover from pest outbreaks.
  2. Stress induced by the warming climate is leading to some tree species’ increased susceptibility to pest/disease outbreaks, while facilitating pests’ spread and survival leading to greater potential for outbreaks. For example, drought stress has made spruce woodland in southeast England increasingly susceptible to Ips typographus (European spruce bark beetle), the most significant forestry spruce pest in Europe.

Invasive non-native species (INNS)

  1. The importation of planting stock carries risk of introducing pests, but plant health controls, phytosanitary certification, and GB Plant Passports reduce this risk.
  2. The use of new forestry species for adaptation/species diversification, for which little is known about their performance and growth characteristics in UK conditions, may risk the introduction of INNS.
  3. Introduced invasive mammals pose significant risk to targets for woodland expansion and management, for example grey squirrel and non-native deer.
  4. Rhododendron ponticum poses a threat to woodland habitats and its management represents a cost to woodland owners.

N9 – Opportunities for forestry productivity from new/alternative species becoming suitable (including provenance and genetic diversity)

(In NAP3, risk actions relating to forest genetic resources and nursery production are nested under NAP risk N8. However, as the opportunities related to new species becoming suitable overlap with NAP risk N9 and its interdependencies, they are discussed here).

  1. Lesser-used tree species and more southerly provenances can confer resilience against a wide variety of threats and provide productivity gains. However, there is a potential risk of poor performance, maladaptation or significant environmental impact if their growth characteristics are untested under UK conditions or provenances are moved too far north (see N8 above).
  2. Static and strict interpretation of which tree species are considered native limit UK adaptive capacity within the treescape, even at regional scales. This issue also limits progress in addressing NAP3 risk N3.
  3. A review [footnote 1] suggests that local adaptation can occur through epigenetic modification in trees (suggesting potential specific epigenetic influences over drought, heat, and salinity tolerance, as well as dormancy and dispersal traits). This may enable some degree of phenotypic plasticity to environmental stress.
  4. There is a knowledge gap regarding what native biodiversity is supported by near and non-native species.

Nursery provision

  1. Many of the major forest nurseries are now stocking improved genetic material of the main forestry species and a limited number are also supplying more southerly origins for the main native forest species.
  2. Suppliers face increased administrative and practical requirements to source appropriate seed, due to biosecurity and import restrictions.
  3. Expectations to rapidly plant woodlands and short grant windows mismatch the necessary time demands and securities to build up nursery stock of specific provenance and species diversity.

Provenance and suitability of reproductive material

  1. Periodic mast years and recalcitrant seed dictate local seed supply for some trees. To ensure continuous supply, seed is sourced from less climatically analogous regions of Europe.
  2. The lack of available forest reproductive material of given provenance remains a key risk linked to species diversity and genetic adaptation.
  3. Seed of unknown or, potentially, inappropriate provenance is still regularly available online and should be avoided.
  4. Valuable insights into seed sourcing policy and practice are available from datasets assembled by Forestry England.

3. Climate change impacts on our ability to function

The main impacts of climate change on business and corporate activities are common to most organisations, and relate to working conditions, working patterns, energy use and the ability of Forestry Commission’s built estate to cope with the changing climate.

Impact on general functions

  1. We have contingency plans and Business Continuity Planning as well as an all-hazard and all-risks Incident Management System to help prepare, prevent, respond and recover from incidents and emergencies.
  2. Commercial public events such as forest concerts or seasonal light trails are more frequently being impacted by storm events leading to cancellation.
  1. A risk that needs to be considered as part of business sustainability plans.
  2. Costs to converting to electric fleet vehicles are limiting change and there is limited availability of both the vehicles and charging infrastructure.

Risk to buildings and staff where offices are subject to flooding or wind risk

  1. This remains a risk, but business continuity planning has been shown to be effective.
  2. Flexible working is now common, but increased staff numbers now mean there is insufficient office space should more staff work from an office. A wider geographical spread of offices means it is likely that flooding may impact on many home offices, but that fewer staff will be affected at any one time.
  3. Storm water flows are damaging culverts and forest roads. Windstorms and tree pest and disease outbreaks are impacting recreational facilities.
  1. The continued volatility in oil prices since ARP3 remains a risk in the longer term.
  2. The policy on private vehicle emissions (maximum CO2 emissions imposed for business use of private vehicles) continues to present challenges for management and staff.

4.1 Overview

The following section highlights actions carried out and ongoing that address NAP3 forestry risks. Please refer to Annex 2 for core Forestry Commission activities listed against NAP3 risks and actions. For a summary of actions from previous ARP reports, refer to Annex 5.

4.2 Details of actions addressing NAP3 forestry risks

Summaries of Forestry Commission activities are included against each of the NAP3 forestry risks. These are subdivided by those recently implemented, ongoing, and with longer-term implementation. Forest Research core research programmes (CRP) and work areas (WA) which address the Science and Innovation Strategy for forestry in Great Britain (2020) (SIS) that are related to climate change adaptation actions are included in Annex 3. Refer to this annex for further detail of our research action addressing NAP3 forestry risks.

Details of actions to address N1

Risks to terrestrial species and habitats from changing climatic conditions and extreme events, including temperature change, water scarcity, wildfire, flooding, wind, and altered hydrology (including water scarcity, flooding and saline intrusion):

Halt the decline in species abundance by 2030 and protect 30% of land in England in a way that recognises and responds to climate change risks by 2030 to reduce the risk to terrestrial species and habitats.

Recently implemented

Appropriate species choice and woodlands in the landscape

(It should be noted that the work supporting climate-appropriate species choice will also contribute towards NAP3 risk N3 helping the movement of species within the UK, as well as risks N5 and N6).

  1. CRP1 WA1 Environmental Change impacts and susceptibility assessments (see Annex 3)
  2. ESC decision support system use is required for English Woodland Creation Officer (EWCO) and Countryside Stewardship (CS) woodland creation grant applications ensuring suitable species are selected that match site conditions.
  3. EWCO provides additional contributions for the expansion of woodlands (increasing habitat patch size and resilience) with specific design requirements to support nature recovery and flood risk management and water quality/quantity.
  4. Natural colonisation is now funded within EWCO with guidance informed by Forest Research’s research.
  5. ESC has been upgraded to version 4.5 with a new user interface. This includes: UKCP18 data; models for additional species; winter cold risk; and incorporate the output of process-based models for beech, Scots pine, and Sitka spruce.
  6. Forest Research produced and launched new drought videos in December 2024 to build knowledge of impacts of drought and current research.
  7. Forestry Commission is collaborating with Natural England (NE), Kew, Defra, Environment Agency (EA) and the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero to embed adaptation in the HM Treasury’s Shared Outcomes Fund Nature Returns project.
  8. The National Arboreta are undertaking a study to consider landscape succession in relation to adaptation to climate change.
  9. The Woodland Condition Assessment tool has launched to allow landowners to baseline and assess the condition of their woodland habitat in a standardised way.

Water

  1. EWCO provides additional contributions for expanding woodlands with specific design requirements to support flood risk management and mitigate the effects of diffuse water pollution from agriculture.
  2. Forest Research CRP2 WA5 payments for ecosystem services (see Annex 3) and CRP5.
  3. Collaboration with the EA and priority map revision using new LIDAR data ensures that the catchments of highest priority flood risk and requiring action to improve water quality are targeted with (EWCO) incentives. A similar approach has been adopted to provide EWCO additional contributions (such as up-front payments) for establishing riparian woodland in water bodies and watercourse reaches devoid of shade.
  4. Forest Services, Forest Research and the EA have developed a process and decision support tool to identify integrated water bodies either vulnerable or potentially vulnerable to low flows and quantify the impacts of woodland creation on water resources, to inform regulatory screening.
  5. Woodland Water Code quality pilots have started (further information below).
  6. The following guidance has been published:

Soon to be implemented (by 2030)

Climate and site appropriate species choice

  1. Forest Research will add suitability to 2050 and 2080 UKCP18 projections and incorporate updates to species moisture response to ESC.
  2. ESC future species updates will be based on species’ distribution, and in some cases, process-based modelling accounting for extreme drought impacts.
  3. Drought risk maps will be developed using Standardised Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index allowing regional drought frequency and severity identification.
  4. Forest Research will develop a Resilience Indicator, including drought risk, for application in Forestry England’s sub-compartment database.
  5. ESC 5 will be launched introducing further species and additional contextual site data. For example, summer and winter rainfall according to different climate scenarios.
  6. Forest Research is mapping UK species distribution using remote sensing and machine learning techniques. This will support the National Forest Inventory (NFI) with regional risk assessment and quantification of adaptation deficit.

Guidance

The Ancient and Native Woodland Practice Guide is being reviewed and a new release will incorporate further, appropriate, adaptation measures.

Water

A Woodland Water Code is being developed by Forestry Commission, funded by Defra. This voluntary crediting mechanism will apply across the UK to encourage private investment in trees to improve the freshwater environment.

Details of actions to address N4

Risk to soils from changing climatic conditions, including seasonal aridity and wetness:

Protect and improve soil health so that soil maintains its multiple functions and is more resilient to impacts from climate change.

Recently implemented

Soon to be implemented (by 2030)

  • alongside soil industry experts and Forest Research, Forestry Commission is developing an accredited qualification (Lantra) to teach and assess our soil classification and survey methods for forest soils
  • improved soil awareness and understanding will help appropriate species choice and strengthen protection for more vulnerable soils from forest operations

Details of actions to address N5 – Risks to natural carbon stores and sequestration from changing climatic conditions (forestry)

Create and maintain healthy, functioning woodlands, which will increase the resilience of these carbon stores for future climate conditions.

Recently implemented

  1. The fifth edition of the UK Forestry Standard came into force in October 2024. The revision provided opportunities to strengthen requirements for enhanced resilience and the implementation of adaptation measures through UKFS requirements underpinning forestry grants, forestry regulations, forest certification and the management of the nation’s forests.
  2. Forestry Commission regulates all woodland creation in England, including initiatives such as the English Community Forests Trees for Climate Fund developed under the Nature for Climate Fund. We aim to streamline the regulatory process to accelerate planting rates while maintaining environmental and social integrity through initiatives such as Low Sensitivity mapping for Woodland Creation in England.
  3. A statutory target to increase tree canopy and woodland cover to at least 16.5% of England’s land area was legislated for in January 2023. This will increase the carbon stocks of England’s woodlands and provides the opportunity to embed adaptation actions and principles in the comprehensive tree and woodland programme, currently funded by the Nature for Climate Fund. If the statutory tree canopy target is to make its contribution to net zero by 2050, 30% of the new woodland planting will need to comprise faster-growing conifer species. The Forestry Commission is currently exploring opportunity areas for woodland expansion including further development of Low Sensitivity mapping.
  4. EWCO is a flagship grant scheme for farmers and landowners to encourage investment (£16.8 million 2023 to 24) in targeted woodland creation. These woodlands will help to mitigate climate change, deliver nature recovery and provide wider environmental and social benefits. An ESC assessment is required for all applications to ensure suitable species are selected. Additional contributions are also available for expanding existing woodland and for proposals located on land mapped as low sensitivity for woodland creation.
  5. National environmental objectives for local nature recovery strategies were sent to all responsible authorities producing the strategies and included objectives on water quality, flood protection and tree cover. The Forestry Commission, with the Environment Agency and Natural England has been sharing data and advice with responsible authorities to support the prioritisation and targeting of nature-based solutions, for carbon sequestration, water quality and flood management in these statutory local strategies (also relevant to risks N5 and H3).

Research addressing risk N5

  1. The Centre for Forest Protection was launched with Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew to deliver innovative science, interdisciplinary research, expert advice and training.
  2. CRP1 Sustainable Forest Management in the light of environmental change, CRP2 WA5 Payments for ecosystem services, and CRP5 Achieving multiple ecosystem benefits (see Annex 3).
  3. ESC was used to develop a demonstrator flood alleviation woodland design tool.
  4. Forestry Commission and the University of Manchester, co-ordinated the UK Wildfire Research Group.
  5. Forestry Commission seconded a Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service Fire Investigator to produce a report on the causes and motives of wildfires (2023).
  6. Forestry Commission is a partner in various large Natural Environment Research Council-funded wildfire prevention projects with multiple UK universities.

External training addressing risk N5:

  • private sector training delivery increased to 840 hours in 2023 to 2024, involving approximately 17,000 attendees
  • Forestry Commission provided Woodland Carbon Code training across 6 Local Partnership Projects. Reports have been completed on: carbon prices in voluntary markets in the UK and buyer preferences for ecosystem services
  • Lantra accredited training on wildfire resilience, forest planning and response to wildfire has been developed, and delivered to 1,300 fire and rescue services and land manager participants over the past 3 years

Resources addressing risk N5:

Soon to be implemented (by 2030)

Grants

  • the woodland improvement grant and woodland planning grant continue to promote proactive adaptive management according to the latest UKFS revision and incorporating consideration of future risks
  • funding focused on forest resilience and alternative silvicultural systems is being implemented in the Countryside Stewardship higher tier woodland improvement grant opening for applications in 2025

Wind

  • Forest Research is collaborating with Aberdeen University to calculate future wind risk to UK forest resources under NetZero+ scenarios
  • a ForestGALES update to calculate risk from extreme wind speed data will support the ADD-Trees project with Exeter University
  • bespoke training on the appropriate use of ForestGALES in forest planning and operations will be delivered across Forestry England

Wildfire

  • Forestry Commission is awaiting confirmation of funding to progress the UK Fire Danger Rating System, to develop a Wildfire Risk Map and to analyse post-2021 wildfire statistics
  • a business case and project plan were developed in 2024 and submitted to Defra and Home Office to use international best practice to improve wildfire investigation training
  • new Lantra-accredited wildfire courses are being developed in partnership with partners such as the National Fire Chiefs Council

Woodland Carbon Markets

With the involvement of Forestry Commission, Defra is working with the British Standards Institute following the launch of the Nature Markets Standards Programme in 2023, in support of the UK Government’s Green Finance Strategy and Nature Markets Framework to boost market confidence and increase private sector investment. The foundational Nature Markets Framework and overarching principles was consulted on in 2024 and detailed standards for carbon and nature markets are in development.

Details of actions to address N6 – Risks to and opportunities for forestry productivity from extreme events and changing climatic conditions

Maintain average forestry productivity (as a minimum) at current levels to 2080, to ensure that England has healthy and productive woodlands which are resilient to extreme events and have high levels of diversity.

Recently implemented

Forestry England’s forest resilience approach drives the adaptation of the nation’s forests to changing conditions, threats and risks. See Annex 6 for a best practice case study and Annex 3 for details of research undertaken by FR to address risk N6 (research programme CRP1 Sustainable forest management in the light of environmental change). Forestry Commission contributed to development of the Timber in Construction Roadmap (published in 2024) with the aim of creating an environment for greater timber market activities under a changing climate.

Resources and training

Soon to be implemented (by 2030)

In January 2023 it was agreed by the then government, the Tree Health Resilience Strategy and Woodland Resilience Implementation Programme (WRIP) would merge to produce one comprehensive Tree and Woodland Resilience Strategy (TWRS). The TWRS will additionally include greater emphasis on economic resilience of the treescape in addition to the original ‘ecological’ focus of the WRIP. Work on drafting the document structure and potential actions and delivery plan is underway.

ESC 4.5 is being used to underpin the development of the Economics of Woodland Creation tool which will appraise the economic potential of woodlands for land managers.

Details of actions to address N8 – Risks to forestry from pests, pathogens, and Invasive non-native species

Minimise the risk of increased impacts on forestry from pests, pathogens and INNS in a changing climate.

Recently implemented

Increased tree health support

  1. Forest Services’ Plant Health Forestry team is established, working with wider Forestry Commission, Defra, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), NE, EA, and major NGOs and the forestry sector towards the Plant Biosecurity Strategy (2023) and Tree Health Resilience Strategy (2018).
  2. Forestry Commission continues to assess CS woodland tree health grants supporting landowners.
  3. Forestry Commission continues to support the regional trials of the Tree Health Pilot.
  4. Forestry Commission has updated its Incident Management System and has developed Lantra accredited training for Plant Health professionals across Forestry Commission, as well as Defra and APHA.

Limiting introductions and spread of pests and INNS

  1. Plant Health Management Standard nurseries or their equivalent are required for supply to EWCO, CS, and Tree Health Pilot planting. Forestry England Delamere Nursery passed this audit for its 5th time in 2024.
  2. TreeAlert launched a new user dashboard to facilitate the monitoring and surveillance of tree pests.
  3. Efforts to eradicate Ips typographus in southeast England and East Anglia are continuing with a dedicated Forestry Commission Ips team within Plant Health Forestry. The Demarcated Area restrictions aim to limit the area of host tree populations prone to wind-assisted spread from established European populations.
  4. Six biosecurity online learning modules were publicly launched for professional development.
  5. Forestry Commission’s Woodland Resilience Officers have developed and introduced a referral process to record and review the planting of non-native emerging forestry species, and to decide on approval within grant-funded woodland creation schemes along with appropriate control measures where necessary.

Ongoing research

Forest Research Tree health and biosecurity research programme (CRP7) addresses N8, this includes work areas:

  • WA1 – Diagnostic, advisory and phytosanitary provision
  • WA2 – Understanding pest and pathogen threats
  • WA3 – Improved detection, monitoring and surveillance
  • WA4 – Pest and disease management for resilient treescapes
  • WA5 – Interdisciplinary approaches to enhance biosecurity

See Annex 3 for further detail.

Soon to be implemented (by 2030)

  1. The Grey Squirrel Action Plan and Deer Strategy are awaiting ministerial approval. Both are required to establish and sustainably manage woodlands.
  2. Tree Health Pilot grants will be transitioned to national grants supported by Foresty Commission.
  3. A risk assessment framework, developed for the screening of novel tree species across the Defra group, will be incorporated into the emerging forestry species referral process and extended to felling licence processing. Therefore, it will apply to restocking, in addition to woodland creation.
  4. Invasive species management plans will be incorporated into the enhanced Countryside Stewardship pre-application process and assessed by Forestry Commission.

Details of actions to address N9 – Opportunities for forestry productivity from new/alternative species becoming suitable (including provenance and genetic diversity)

Plant a wider range of species, including emerging forestry species, so that timber productivity is maintained or enhanced, relative to a 2023 baseline.

Recently implemented

  1. Ongoing research within Forest Research’s research programme, CRP2 Markets for forest products and services (see Annex 3 for work area detail).
  2. Through evidence-based analysis, Forestry England have prioritised 30 tree ‘Species for Future’. This will provide focus for forest planning, investment and its Plant and Seed Supply Strategy.
  3. Forest Services is promoting appropriate use of near native and suitable non-native species based on information from ESC, ClimEssence, EUNIS habitat types, US Climate Change Atlas, and European Atlas of Forest Tree Species.
  4. Forest Research species pages have been reviewed and updated (59 species are now included).
  5. As part of the UK Forest Genetic Resources group, Forestry Commission is working with industry representatives to produce a list of emerging forestry species that have the most interest with regards to commercial use across the UK. This builds on the recent parallel process undertaken by Forestry England and a similar process in Scotland.
  6. The UK has maintained membership of European Forest Genetic Resources Programme for Phase VII, with Forest Services acting as national coordinator. The UK Forest Genetic Resources group (which includes representation from across Forestry Commission) is then communicating this information to the wider forestry sector.
  7. In 2024 21 new Genetic Conservation Units were registered across 6 sites and 21 species in collaboration with NatureScot and NRW.
  8. Forest Research and Forestry England have developed the Forest Biodiversity Index (FOBI), a bespoke indicator of tree, stand and landscape diversity. A complementary indicator of tree functional diversity has been developed for Forestry England by external consultants. Both the FOBI and functional diversity index use the sub-compartment database and are now starting to be used in monitoring.

Soon to be implemented (i.e. by 2030)

  1. New Forestry England land acquisitions are being considered for FR species trials.
  2. Forest Research has undertaken a 10-year assessment of the 8 species and provenance trials established in 2012. A paper summarising the results so far is being reviewed for publication.
  3. Forest Research plan to expand the Genetic Conservation Unit network pending funding from the Centre for Forest Protection.

Forest Research is discussing involvement with the Institut Européen des Forêts Cultivées REINFORCE 2 project. If agreed, this could see a further 3 trials established along the less represented east coast of Britain.

4.3 Monitoring mechanisms to monitor and evaluate

The summary of Forestry Commission indicators relevant to adaptation and resilience is updated from ARP3 in Annex 4.

Climate change adaptation has been embedded across the Forestry Commission as business as usual, rather than as a bespoke, activity. Where climate change adaptation is treated as a specific activity, evaluation mechanisms are outlined as follows:

  • sector resilience outreach activity: the efficacy of the sector outreach program will be evaluated against the baseline British Woodlands Survey in 2020, when it is repeated (2025)
  • adaptation in woodland creation grants: the effectiveness of climate change measures in the Nature for Climate Fund (including EWCO) will be evaluated through the programme’s monitoring and evaluation programme
  • key performance indicators will continue to monitor progress in woodland expansion, the spatial configuration (and resilience) of the woodland resource, and biosecurity threats (and responses to them)
  • the National Forest Inventory provides a longer-term monitoring framework for evaluating the efficacy of adaptation measures, particularly future updates of the woodland ecological condition indicator. The NFI is also considering regular (annual) reporting of the area of woodland affected by windstorm
  • NFI800, an extension of the current NFI programme, will increase sampling effort in England allowing for finer geographical scale analysis and providing more detail on trends of NFI attributes
  • Forest Services is developing a new corporate KPI on the diversity of species funded through the EWCO woodland creation grant scheme

Forest Research’s research programme, CRP4 Resource assessment and sector monitoring, continues to pursue innovative approaches to forest inventories, data acquisition, high-quality forestry statistics and forest modelling in support of forest policy and practice.

5.1 Planting stock and nursery supply

Creating resilient woodlands or restocking with alternative species for adaptation to climate change depends on an adaptable nursery sector. The UK has a small number of seed trading businesses and recommendations to diversify species use and provenance has challenged current business models. Long lead times, short term demand, increasing costs, and commercial risk of growing stock for which demand is not proven, stifle progress.  

Actions to address nursery supply

  1. Tree Production Innovation Fund has supported projects that aim to enhance the quality, quantity, and diversity of planting stock available for tree planting in England (£2.5 million 2023 to 24).
  2. Tree Production Capital Grant enhances the domestic production of tree seed and saplings, facilities and equipment investments (£2.2 million 2023 to 24).
  3. Seed Sourcing Grant enhances the quality, quantity, and diversity of tree seed sources in England.
  4. Nursery notification is required for large EWCO schemes. However, this is short term compared to the time required when ordering novel species or a specific provenance.

5.2 Issues around the use of single use plastic

The UK government is committed to eliminating all avoidable plastic waste by 2042. It is important that Forestry Commission evaluates approaches to the prevention, reduction, re-use, recycling and recovery of plastics in line with the waste hierarchy. Alternative materials that have not been fully tested, may lead to poor establishment rates, while a move toward higher unprotected stocking densities could lead to nursery sector shortages.

  1. Alternative methods of establishment are being considered and researched.
  2. Preliminary Forest Research trials of innovative tree protection materials indicate that several products may last for less than 2 years on site before breaking down and are therefore not fit for purpose.
  3. Forestry Commission has published guidance on the use of tree shelters and guards, which we are currently updating. And we are working actively with the Forest Plastics Working Group.

5.3 Land use priority and food production

The need to maintain/increase food production, in part because of global climate change, may limit the ability of Forestry Commission to facilitate a step change in the rate of new woodland planting. Land availability may be further restricted by the need to maintain water resources in areas of low (and declining) rainfall and targets for wildlife-rich habitat creation and restoration.

  1. Forestry Commission has developed low sensitivity maps for woodland creation, linked to a EWCO additional contribution, with the aim of promoting planting on less sensitive sites and accelerating grant application and Environmental Impact Assessment screening processes.
  2. Forestry Commission has been supporting the development of local nature recovery strategies to balance priorities for biodiversity and wider environmental outcomes, including climate change mitigation and adaptation.
  3. Forest Research’s research programme CRP5 WA2 Methods and tools to assess multiple benefits and trade-offs from trees, woods and forests (see Annex 3) aims to identify the most appropriate sites for woodland expansion.

However, the issue of timber security is rarely recognised. It may become more prominent over the coming decades, given that the UK imports 80% of the wood it uses, and global timber demand is predicted to increase four-fold by the middle of the century. Climate change (including an increasing frequency and severity of tree pest and disease outbreaks) may also impact wood production where the UK currently imports timber from. 

5.4 Payments for ecosystem services

New ‘nature markets’ are developing following funding being made available through the Natural Environment Investment Readiness Fund. The appeal of market-based mechanisms to attract private investment for afforestation depends on ensuring stability and credibility of the markets themselves.

  1. Forest Research’s research programme CRP2 WA5 continues to investigate the development of payments for ecosystem service markets (see Annex 3).
  2. £50 million funding for the Woodland Carbon Guarantee (WCaG) was announced in the 2018 autumn Budget and provides funding over 30 to 35 years for eligible projects.
  3. WCaG has delivered 8 reverse auctions. The latest includes a ‘non-grant funded’ category to scope the price potential for woodland creation projects in England that are not supported by government grants.
  4. WCaG mechanism has had the effect of strengthening the nascent domestic carbon offset market despite recent discrediting of avoided deforestation projects in world-wide markets.

6. Uncertainties and actions to address these

6.1 Uncertainty

Perception of long-term uncertainty in forestry:

Communicating the urgency of adaptation in forestry is complicated by long timescales, understanding precisely when tipping points will occur, how climate change will progress, or how extreme events will play out. Informed action is needed now to secure England’s woodland resource, yet future research might alter the interpretation of the evidence and advice given.

Actions:

  • Forest Research’s expert advice informs UKFS practice and ongoing updates
  • landowner assessment of future risks is incorporated into management plans
  • operational staff, with national advisors’ support, provide bespoke advice
  • Forest Research social research findings are applied to promote climate change adaption
  • use of Forest Research/Forestry England Resilience Indicators previously mentioned and incorporating contextual site data, and Standardised Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index to improve the predictive capability of ESC version 5

Tree species suitability predictions

Trees’ reactions to changing local conditions (droughts and longer periods of flooding) could take several years to manifest, and these reactions are likely to be a complex product of multiple factors:

  • future improvements to species’ models within ESC will be developed based on chorological maps of European tree species distribution as part of process-based modelling developments
  • supporting NewLeaf research to investigate how quickly trees adapt to change

Interactions between climate change and forestry pests and diseases

Strong evidence is emerging of the interaction between the susceptibility of trees under climatic stress and pest outbreaks. The Defra group Plant Health Risk Register has limited information as to how pests will interact with the changing climate.

Forest Research CRP7 WA2 Understanding pest and pathogen threats of the 2021 to 2026 core research programmes aims to improve understanding of changing pest dynamics (see Annex 3).

Wind risk

Current climate projections do not include projections of changes in the wind climate. Yet the timing and intensity of extreme wind events is changing, compounding uncertainty in a key area of forest planning and management.

  1. R Package ForestGALES v3.0 (FGR) allows the use of future projections of wind climate.
  2. FGR allows the use of point cloud datasets, which are becoming increasingly available, to calculate wind risk metrics for individual trees within forests and woodland.

Wildfire risk

Larger, more spatially dynamic, rapid and multiple incidents are likely with increased impact. Numerous wildfire incidents are likely to occur due to meteorological and fuel factors.

  1. The development of wildfire risk maps is planned.
  2. Preparedness will be improved through the Fire Danger Rating System.
  3. Wildfire Management Plans will be embedded in Woodland Management Plans, as set out in the UK Forestry Standard.
  4. We will work with the sector to better embed wildfire mitigation and adaptation in the design of both the urban and rural tree and woodland planting initiatives.

6.2 Evidence gaps

We outlined several critical research questions Forestry Commission as part of the development of the Science and Innovation Strategy for forestry in Great Britain, published in 2014, ARP2 covered these questions. For the period 2021 to 26, the list of critical research questions was revised. Success criteria for each question were also developed. All were incorporated into Forest Research’s 7 research programmes for 2021 to 26, which mirror the research themes of the 2020 revision of the SIS, (see Annex 3). We started delivering the research in April 2021, which will run for 5 years.

The process for establishing the next Science and Innovation Strategy (2026 to 2031) has begun. It is led by Forest Services on behalf of all 4 administrations and is due to conclude in autumn/winter 2025. This will provide an opportunity to provide further focus on woodland resilience and climate change adaptation.

6.3 Contingency planning and incident management

Forest Services has a tried and tested approach to incident management that is practiced at exercises: Exercise ELM 2018 (Xylella outbreak) and Exercise NOBEL FIR 2019 (major wildfire). The exercise for 2020 was delayed until 2021 and the 2021 exercise was cancelled due to coronavirus. Forestry Commission’s Incident Management Team was active from March 2020 to September 2021 responding to coronavirus, with further major exercises not required. Following these exercises, clear roles were established across the organisation (including Forest Research and Forestry England). This included allocating duty officer responsibilities for a member of the Forest Services Executive Team at all times. Close working with the contingency planning teams in Defra and the Environment Agency, ensures that we are ready to deal with real events when they occur.

The incident management process becomes operational when amber or red alerts are received from the Natural Hazards Partnership and the National Severe Weather Warning System (triggering the establishment of incident-specific requirements), or when a new pest outbreak or infestation arises. Since 2013, the National Incident Management team has been activated 53 times.

Since 2023, the incident management approach has been reviewed, updated and developed into Lantra-accredited training. The first incident management training workshops will be rolled out in early 2025.

7. Opportunities and challenges

7.1 Opportunities

The Environment Act 2021, net zero ambitions, and wider public support for tree planting provide an unrivalled opportunity to implement adaptation measures in the forestry sector. The key opportunities can be summarised as:

  • the Nature for Climate Fund embeds adaptation principles, resilient woodland enhancement, and landscape recovery to achieve net zero emissions
  • it is critical that we work closely with Defra to embed forestry and woodland adaptation into Countryside Stewardship, Sustainable Farming Incentive and Landscape Recovery components of Environmental Land Management schemes
  • nature-based solutions at landscape scale (Nature Returns), gives us a practical opportunity to embed adapted woodland design into resilient landscapes
  • NAP3 emphasises the requirement to embed resilience in terrestrial biodiversity, natural carbon stores and commercial forestry
  • guided by Forestry England and Forest Research expertise, the nation’s 253,000ha of forests represent exemplars of forest management delivering environmental, economic and social resilience which can be used to promote best practice
  • there is scope for closer national and area level involvement in the Catchment Sensitive Farming initiative, integrating our woodland creation advice
  • responses to recent pest and disease outbreaks, including the current Ips outbreak, provide the opportunity for exemplars of resilience when restocking/regenerating the woodland

7.2 Key challenges

The key challenges that continue to be addressed when implementing the actions set out in this report can be summarised as:

  • uncertainty associated with implementing adaptive actions in advance of the full effects of climate change being realised
  • clearly communicating that different approaches to adaptation are appropriate for different management objectives
  • drawing the forestry sector together so that it speaks with one voice on the need to adapt, putting different management objectives aside
  • financial cost of transitioning to more resilient systems, which initially are more costly to manage and less productive than traditional systems
  • ensuring that sufficient, appropriate, planting stock is available to support the ambitious planting programmes
  • enabling an adaptive view of tree species composition and migration that can dynamically adjust to climate change
  • protecting our irreplaceable habitats whilst ensuring that our ancient and semi-natural woodlands can adapt to future climate
  • balancing the various demands placed on England’s limited and crowded land area, including nature recovery, food production, timber production, transport and development
  • establishing the principle that net zero, nature recovery and timber production aspirations from forestry and woodlands will not be achieved in the absence of the woodlands being planted now being resilient and adapted to the future climate
  • resistance to the planting of non-native species in the context of enhancing the diversity and resilience of England’s woodland resource

  1. Miryeganeh, M. & Armitage, D. W. Epigenetic responses of trees to environmental stress in the context of climate change. Biol. Rev. (2024) doi:10.1111/brv.13132. ↩

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