South American camelids: aide memoire to the diagnosis of common disease syndromes
Published 27 January 2025
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These differential diagnoses are not an exhaustive list – other conditions may be involved, and the results of any tests must consider the clinical signs and history.
Please note most of these tests are not validated in camelids.
1. Skin disease
| Main differential diagnoses | Diagnostics |
|---|---|
| Parasites (Chorioptes, Psoroptes, Sarcoptic, Demodex, harvest mites, lice) | Superficial and deep skin scrapes and hair plucks from number of sites especially interdigital areas (microscopic examination), formalin-fixed biopsy samples (histopathology) |
| Abscesses/CLA | Deep swab or tissue biopsy (aerobic and anaerobic culture) |
| Dermatophytosis/ringworm | Hair pluck (microscopic examination) and skin scale (fungal culture) |
| Dermatophilus | Skin scabs/crusts or biopsy of fresh lesions (microscopic examination, culture) |
| Orf | Skin scabs/crusts, biopsy samples (PCR, electron microscopy), formalin-fixed biopsy samples (histopathology) |
| Neoplasia | Formalin-fixed biopsy samples (histopathology) |
2. Abortion
| Main differential diagnoses | Diagnostics |
|---|---|
| Salmonellosis, Campylobacter, BVD, Neosporosis, opportunist bacteria, Chlamydia abortus, toxoplasmosis, leptospirosis, (Brucella), Q fever (Coxiella burnetii) and mycotic abortion (Infectious causes are not common) |
Maternal serum (serology), fresh whole foetus/stillborn ideally with placenta, fresh tissues: foetal stomach contents (culture), foetal fluid, fresh and formalin-fixed tissues, placenta (various tests) |
3. Ill-thrift / weight loss
| Main differential diagnoses | Diagnostics |
|---|---|
| Dentition | Clinical examination, radiography |
| BVD | Serum (PCR, ELISA), heparinised plasma (ELISA), fresh spleen or thymus (PCR) |
| Trace element deficiency (rare except copper) | Serum and heparinised plasma or fresh liver (biochemistry) |
| Malnutrition | Clinical investigation into nutrition and feeding. Diagnostic tests may help to rule out other conditions |
| Worms/coccidia | Faeces (worm egg and coccidial oocyst count including E. macusaniensis), formalin-fixed tissues (histopathology), C3 and small intestinal contents (total worm count) |
| Liver fluke (fasciolosis) | Faeces (faecal sedimentation, coproantigen ELISA), serum (ELISA) |
| Haemonchosis | Faeces (worm egg count, Haemonchus differential staining) |
| TB | Serum (ELISA) - please discuss with APHA if clinical disease is suspected (clinical signs of TB are not pathognomonic) |
| Johne’s | Faeces (special staining, culture & PCR), serum (ELISA) |
4. Anaemia (weight loss, dyspnoea, lethargy, pale mucous membranes)
| Main differential diagnoses | Diagnostics |
|---|---|
| Haemonchosis, fasciolosis, infectious anaemia (Mycoplasma haemolamae), gastric ulceration, chronic inflammation (e.g., TB, Johne’s), neoplasia, iron deficiency, other mineral deficiencies (e.g., copper, zinc, phosphorus) | EDTA blood (haematology), serum (biochemistry, trace elements, fluke ELISA, Johne’s ELISA), heparinised blood (trace elements), blood smear (examination for Mycoplasma – also PCR/DGGE), faeces (faecal sedimentation, fluke coproantigen ELISA, Johne’s PCR, worm egg and coccidial oocyst count including E. macusaniensis) |
5. Alimentary disease
5.1 Young stock
| Main differential diagnoses | Diagnostics |
|---|---|
| Coccidia, parasitic gastroenteritis (PGE), cryptosporidiosis, rotavirus, coronavirus, Salmonella, E. coli | Faeces (worm egg and coccidial oocyst count including E. macusaniensis, culture, smear examination, PAGE) |
5.2 Adults
| Main differential diagnoses | Diagnostics |
|---|---|
| Liver fluke/PGE/coccidia | Faeces (faecal sedimentation, coproantigen ELISA, worm egg and coccidial oocyst count including E. macusaniensis), serum (fluke ELISA) |
| Gastric ulcer | No specific diagnostic tests. Differential testing may rule out other disease processes |
| Hepatic lipidosis | Fixed liver (histopathology), serum (biochemistry) |
6. Useful links:
APHA provides guidance on sample and test selection in livestock and wildlife, available here: Livestock & Wildlife Disease Diagnosis at APHA Guidance on sample and test selection.
Advice can also be sought by Veterinary Investigation Officers at your local Veterinary Investigation Centre, contactable here: APHA Veterinary Investigation Centres and surveillance pathology partners - GOV.UK
7. Additional sources of information:
Textbooks
- Fowler, M.E. (2010) Medicine & Surgery of South American Camelids, 3rd ed., Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell.
- Cebra, C., Anderson, D.E., Tibary, A., Van Saun, R.J., Johnson, L.W. (2014) Llama and Alpaca Care: Medicine, Surgery, Reproduction, Nutrition, and Herd Health, St Louis: Elsevier.
Articles
- Anderson, D.E., Whitehead, C.E. (2009) ‘Alpaca & Llama Health Management’, Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 25(2), 266-277.
- Tibary, A., Fite, C., Anouassi, A.S. (2006) ‘Infectious causes of reproductive loss in camelids”, Theriogenology, 66(3), 633-47.
- Rüfli, I., Gurtner, C., Basso, W.U., Vidondo, B., Hirsbrunner, G., Zanolari, P. (2021) ‘Causes of Abortions in South American Camelids in Switzerland—Cases and Questionnaire’, Animals, 11(7).