Guidance

Country policy and information note: illegal exit, Iran, December 2025 (accessible)

Updated 7 January 2026

Version 7.0

18 December 2025

Executive summary

Someone who leaves Iran without a passport, with false documents, or violates an exit ban is considered to have departed illegally. Illegal departure may be penalised under Article 34 of the Passport Act with a fine, a prison sentence, or both.

On return to Iran, some people may be stopped after passport control if the authorities wish to question them further. Those most likely to be stopped for questioning include dual nationals, those travelling on laissez-passers, those without exit stamps in their passports, and those flagged by the airport’s systems as being involved with pending criminal or other legal matters.

There is no evidence to indicate that questioned returnees are subjected to ill-treatment during the questioning process and most returnees pass through the airport in Iran without difficulty.

People who left Iran illegally do not fall within the scope of the Refugee Convention for the reason of political opinion or as a particular social group (PSG).

A person who left Iran illegally is unlikely to face a real risk of persecution or serious harm from the state based on their illegal exit alone.

A person who left Iran illegally is unlikely to face prosecution based on their illegal exit alone. Where a person is prosecuted for illegal exit and is not wanted by the authorities for another reason, the penalty is likely to be a fine.

Where a person who left Iran illegally faces criminal charges for an unrelated offence, their illegal exit may be added to the charges against them. Decision makers must consider whether the severity of the sentence or treatment likely to result from the cumulative charges is sufficiently serious to amount to persecution or serious harm.

Where the person has a well-founded fear of persecution or serious harm from the state, they will not, in general, be able to obtain protection nor be able to internally relocate to escape that risk.

Where a claim is refused, it is unlikely to be certifiable as ‘clearly unfounded’ under section 94 of the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002.

All cases must be considered on their individual facts, with the onus on the person to demonstrate they face persecution or serious harm.

Assessment

Section updated: 18 December 2025

About the assessment

This section considers the evidence relevant to this note – that is the country information, refugee/human rights laws and policies, and applicable caselaw – and provides an assessment of whether, in general.

a person faces a real risk of persecution/serious harm by the state because the person exited the country illegally

• internal relocation is possible to avoid persecution/serious harm
• a claim, if refused, is likely or not to be certified as ‘clearly unfounded’ under section 94 of the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002.

Decision makers must, however, consider all claims on an individual basis, taking into account each case’s specific facts.

1. Material facts, credibility and other checks/referrals

1.1 Credibility

1.1.1 For information on assessing credibility, see the instruction on Assessing Credibility and Refugee Status.

1.1.2 Decision makers must also check if there has been a previous application for a UK visa or another form of leave. Asylum applications matched to visas should be investigated prior to the asylum interview (see the Asylum Instruction on Visa Matches, Asylum Claims from UK Visa Applicants).

1.1.3 Decision makers must also consider making an international biometric data-sharing check, when one has not already been undertaken (see Biometric data-sharing process (Migration 5 biometric data-sharing process)).

1.1.4 In cases where there are doubts surrounding a person’s claimed place of origin, decision makers should also consider language analysis testing, where available (see the Asylum Instruction on Language Analysis).

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1.2 Exclusion

1.2.1 Decision makers must consider whether there are serious reasons to apply one (or more) of the exclusion clauses. Each case must be considered on its individual facts.

1.2.2 If the person is excluded from the Refugee Convention, they will also be excluded from a grant of humanitarian protection (which has a wider range of exclusions than refugee status).

1.2.3 For guidance on exclusion and restricted leave, see the Asylum Instruction on Exclusion under Articles 1F and 33(2) of the Refugee Convention, Humanitarian Protection and the instruction on Restricted Leave.

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2. Convention reason(s)

2.1.1 People who left Iran illegally do not fall within the scope of the Refugee Convention for the reason of political opinion.

2.1.2 The group are also not considered to form a particular social group (PSG) within the meaning of the Refugee Convention. While they do share a common background that cannot be changed – having exited Iran illegally – they do not have a distinct identity in Iran because the group is not perceived as being different by the surrounding society.

2.1.3 Consideration must be given to whether there are other reasons which might engage the Refugee Convention. In the absence of a link to one of the 5 Refugee Convention reasons necessary for the grant of asylum, the question is whether the person will face a real risk of serious harm to qualify for Humanitarian Protection (HP).

2.1.4 For further guidance on the 5 Refugee Convention grounds, see the Asylum Instruction, Assessing Credibility and Refugee Status.

3. Risk

3.1.1 A person who left Iran illegally is unlikely to face a real risk of persecution or serious harm from the state based on their illegal exit alone. The onus is on the person to demonstrate otherwise.

3.1.2 A person who left Iran illegally is unlikely to face prosecution based on their illegal exit alone. Where a person is prosecuted for illegal exit and is not wanted by the authorities for another reason, the penalty is likely to be a fine.

3.1.3 Where a person who left Iran illegally faces criminal charges for an unrelated offence, their illegal exit may be added to the charges against them. Decision makers must consider whether the severity of the sentence or treatment likely to result from the cumulative charges is sufficiently serious to amount to persecution or serious harm (see also relevant Country Policy and Information Notes for Iran).

3.1.4 Sources report that certain categories of citizens require exit permits for foreign travel. They include:

• those who work in fields considered sensitive such as atomic energy,
• those who study abroad,
• those who were educated at government expense or received scholarships which they have not yet repaid; and
• males aged 18 to 30 who are yet to complete military service.

3.1.5 While multiple exit permits are available for some Iranians residing outside Iran, for those residing in Iran, a permit must be obtained for each exit by providing proof of their status and paying a bond that is retrievable upon return. Exit permits are issued electronically and Iranians must also pay an exit tax at the airport each time they depart Iran (see Exit permits).

3.1.6 Travel bans may be imposed in civil or criminal cases by the relevant judicial authorities but are not issued automatically. Reasons for a travel ban can include unpaid taxes and other debts, national security concerns, and on political grounds. When a travel ban is issued, the judiciary notifies the Passport and Border Police which has responsibility for enforcing the travel ban, and which maintains a data system used by airport personnel. There are mixed reports regarding whether intelligence services and the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) have the formal authority to issue travel bans. In any event, they reportedly maintain their own lists of people they wish to prevent from leaving Iran, which they can achieve in practice by confiscating their passports. Journalists, academics, political and human rights activists, and artists including filmmakers, have been subject to foreign travel bans and have had their passports confiscated (see Travel bans and restrictions).

3.1.7 Married women require their husband’s permission to obtain a passport or travel abroad, unless this is specified in the marriage contract or where the wife obtains a power of attorney. A husband can withdraw his permission at any time and request a travel ban be imposed upon his wife, leading to the confiscation of her passport. Unmarried and divorced women over 40 do not require a male guardian’s permission to obtain a passport or travel abroad. Reports vary about whether this also applies to unmarried and divorced women aged 18 to 40. A father’s permission is required for a child under 18 to be issued with a passport or permitted to travel abroad and, while a father may initiate travel bans for his child(ren), reports vary regarding whether he may do so for an unmarried daughter over 18 years. In exceptional circumstances, such as women seeking to travel as part of a national sports team or to represent the government’s interests politically, the state authorities may grant an exemption to a travel ban (see Women, Children, Passports, and Travel bans and restrictions).

3.1.8 Border security, especially at airports, is robust, with multiple layers of physical security and document checking by competent immigration officials. Sources report that it is almost impossible to bypass security procedures at the main airport in Tehran and/or for someone on a travel ban list to exit Iran via this route. Several state authorities provide airport border security, with overall responsibility resting with the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), while the Passport and Border Police handle passport control. Most Iranian identity documents contain biometrics, making them difficult to forge. However, old versions of identity documents and secondary forms of documentation, such as military exemption cards, have less robust security features making forgeries easier, albeit expensive, to obtain. Exiting with fraudulent documents is very difficult by air, but it is reportedly easier via a land border crossing. According to the Islamic Penal Code, an individual found to be using a forged official stamp or seal can be subject to between one and 10 years in prison. The ability to bribe officials to leave the country requires a high level of complicity and is reported to be difficult. For some Iranians, exiting via an unofficial route, while dangerous, is more achievable than exiting via an official crossing point (see Border security, Use of fraudulent documents and Exit via unofficial routes).

3.1.9 Leaving the country without a valid passport or travel document can be penalised under Article 34 of the 1972 Passport Act with a fine, a prison sentence, or both. Some sources note amendments to Article 34 over the years, with the most recent reportedly in 2020. Due to the inaccessibility of official sources and mixed opinions on whether amendments after 1988 were officially enacted, it is difficult to ascertain exact available penalties. However, sources suggest since 2020 fine amounts are at a maximum of approximately £1774 and judges are more likely (or may be bound) to impose a financial penalty rather than a custodial sentence (see Legislation).

3.1.10 Arrivals at the main airport in Tehran will pass through a brief, routine, passport check. A person may be stopped at a ‘Presidency Office’, immediately after passport control, if personnel from the office wish to question them further. Returnees who are most likely to be stopped for questioning include dual nationals, those travelling on laissez-passers (travel documents issued in lieu of standard passports), those without exit stamps in their passports, and those flagged by the airport’s systems as being involved with pending criminal or other legal matters. While information about refused asylum seekers is limited and often vague, sources generally do not differentiate between forcible and voluntary returns of refused asylum seekers. There is no recent or verified information to suggest that individuals have been prosecuted solely based on having sought asylum abroad. Sources reporting ‘problems’ for returnees on this basis are vague or attribute such ‘difficulties’ to being required to answer questions on arrival at the airport. There is no evidence to indicate that questioned returnees are subjected to ill-treatment during the questioning process. Most returnees pass through the airport in Iran without difficulty. On rare occasions, a person may be permitted entry through the airport but arrested subsequently. Criminal prosecutions for illegal departure - leaving the country without a passport, leaving the country with false documents, or violating an exit ban - usually only occur alongside other offences. Sources indicate that where a person is prosecuted for having left Iran illegally and is not wanted by the authorities for any other reason, only a fine is likely to be issued (see Treatment of returnees).

3.1.11 In the country guidance case of SSH and HR (illegal exit: failed asylum seeker) Iran (CG) [2016] UKUT 308 (IAC), heard on 10 May 2016 and promulgated on 29 June 2016, the Upper Tribunal (UT) held that:

An Iranian male whom it is sought to return to Iran, who does not possess a passport, will be returnable on a laissez passer, which he can obtain from the Iranian Embassy on proof of identity and nationality.

An Iranian male in respect of whom no adverse interest has previously been manifested by the Iranian State does not face a real risk of persecution/breach of his Article 3 rights on return to Iran on account of having left Iran illegally and/or being a failed asylum seeker. No such risk exists at the time of questioning on return to Iran nor after the facts (i.e. of illegal exit and being a failed asylum seeker) have been established. In particular, there is not a real risk of prosecution leading to imprisonment’ (paragraphs 33 (a) and (b)).

3.1.12 Referring to cases in which people, on return to Iran, had been prosecuted for other offences and also for illegal departure, the UT found that ‘… people found guilty of another offence may in addition receive a prison sentence for illegal exit, but they do not show that people are sentenced to imprisonment for illegal exit per se. Indeed, the evidence suggests that there is no appetite to prosecute for illegal exit alone, but if there is another offence, illegal exit will be added on’ (paragraph 31).

3.1.13 In the country guidance case, XX (PJAK – sur place activities - Facebook) Iran CG [2022] UKUT 23 (IAC), heard 8 to 10 June 2021 and promulgated on 20 January 2022, the UT held that ‘SSH and HR… continue[s] accurately to reflect the situation for returnees to Iran’ (paragraph 120).

3.1.14 The country information in this note does not indicate that there are ‘very strong grounds supported by cogent evidence’ to depart from these findings.

3.1.15 For further guidance on assessing risk, see the Asylum Instruction on Assessing Credibility and Refugee Status.

4. Protection

4.1.1 Where the person has a well-founded fear of persecution or serious harm from the state, they are unlikely to be able to obtain protection.

4.1.2 For further guidance on assessing state protection, see the Asylum Instruction on Assessing Credibility and Refugee Status.

5. Internal relocation

5.1.1 Where the person has a well-founded fear of persecution or serious harm from the state, they are unlikely to be able to internally relocate to escape that risk.

5.1.2 For further guidance on internal relocation and factors to consider, see the Asylum Instruction on Assessing Credibility and Refugee Status.

6. Certification

6.1.1 Where a claim is refused, it is unlikely to be certifiable as ‘clearly unfounded’ under section 94 of the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002.

6.1.2 For further guidance on certification, see Certification of Protection and Human Rights claims under section 94 of the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 (clearly unfounded claims).

Country information

About the country information

This section contains publicly available or disclosable country of origin information (COI) which has been gathered, collated and analysed in line with the research methodology. It provides the evidence base for the assessment which, as stated in the About the assessment, is the guide to the current objective conditions.

The structure and content follow a terms of reference which sets out the general and specific topics relevant to the scope of this note.

This document is intended to be comprehensive but not exhaustive. If a particular event, person or organisation is not mentioned this does not mean that the event did or did not take place or that the person or organisation does or does not exist.

The COI included was published or made publicly available on or before 8 October 2025. Any event taking place or report published after this date will not be included.

Some country information quoted in this CPIN was originally published in languages other than English and has been translated using free online translation tools. Translated information is clearly signposted throughout.

Decision makers must use relevant COI as the evidential basis for decisions.

7. Exit via official ports

7.1 Passports

7.1.1 For general information on passports, including the application process, see the January 2021 report by Landinfo (the Norwegian Country of Origin Information Centre), Iran: Passports, ID and civil status documents.

7.1.2 On 24 July 2023, the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade for the Australian Government (DFAT) published its Iran Country Information Report based on their ‘knowledge and discussions with a range of sources in Iran and elsewhere. It [also] takes into account relevant and credible open source reports’^{[footnote 1]}. It stated: ‘In some cases, citizens require special permission to obtain a passport. This includes minors under the age of 18, who require the permission of their father/custodian; males who have not completed their military service; and married women, who require their husband’s permission.’^{[footnote 2]}

7.1.3 The same DFAT report indicated that people who are known to the authorities to have previously departed Iran illegally ‘… will face consequences such as the inability to get a passport in the future.’^{[footnote 3]}

7.1.4 On 31 May 2022, the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs (BZ, Dutch abbreviation), published its General official report Iran (translated into English), which cited various sources, and which covered the period from February 2021 to March 2022^{[footnote 4]} (the BZ 2022 report). Citing a confidential source, the report noted that professional soldiers were also not eligible for passports (except for on special occasions such as diplomatic missions and even, for most of them, after their retirement)^{[footnote 5]}.

N.B. the information quoted above was originally published in Dutch. See About the country information for further information about the method of translation.

7.1.5 In September 2023, BZ published the General Country of Origin Information Report on Iran (the BZ 2023 report), which cited various sources and covered the period between April 2022 and August 2023^{[footnote 6]}. The report noted that unmarried women aged over 18 and divorced women did not require permission to apply for a passport^{[footnote 7]}.

7.1.6 Citing confidential sources, the BZ 2023 report stated:

According to one source, little changed as regards travelling abroad during the reporting period. However, it did become more difficult to obtain a passport. Whereas previously it was possible to obtain a passport within a few working days, during the reporting period it took at least two months. One source suspects that the anti-government protests in response to the death of Mahsa Amini have led the authorities to introduce stricter controls on exactly who enters and leaves the country.’^{[footnote 8]} CPIT was unable to find any more recent updates about the difficulty or timeframe for obtaining a passport in the sources consulted (see Bibliography).

7.1.7 According to an undated page on Iran’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs website, which listed the documents and permissions required when making an application for a first Iranian passport, those who have illegally exited Iran were also required to complete a form ‘… for investigation of illegal exit.’^{[footnote 9]}

7.1.8 See also Use of fraudulent documents and Illegal exits.

7.2 Exit permits

7.2.1 The July 2023 DFAT report stated:

An exit permit for foreign travel is required for Iranians employed in fields considered sensitive (e.g., employees of the Iranian Atomic Energy Organisation); those studying abroad (whether on government scholarships or privately-funded); and all males aged 18-30 who are yet to complete military service (principally those who have deferred military service to undertake tertiary studies). To obtain an exit permit, citizens must provide proof of their status (e.g., a letter from their university confirming their enrolment) and pay a bond (the bond is retrievable on return). Iranian nationals resident in Iran who require an exit permit must obtain one each time they leave the country (multiple exit permits are not available for Iranian nationals resident in Iran). Exit permits are issued electronically.

… Beyond their passport and, where it is required, an exit permit, Iranians exiting Iran are not required to present any other documents.^{[footnote 10]}

For more information on military conscription, see the Country Policy and Information Note on Iran: Military service.

7.2.2 On 23 April 2024, the US State Department published its 2023 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices (USSD 2023 Country Report) which stated: ‘Citizens who were educated at government expense or received scholarships had either to repay the scholarship or receive a temporary permit to exit the country.’^{[footnote 11]} The USSD published its 2024 Iran Country Report on 12 August 2025 but provided no coverage of exit permits^{[footnote 12]}.

7.2.3 Iran’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs website stated: ‘Iranians that are not under obligation of Military service, and who possess a credible residence abroad, can apply for the issuance of a Multiple exiting permit.’^{[footnote 13]}

7.2.4 The same source included a note which stated: ‘As of 1/9/1386 (22/11/2007), entry and departure stamps are no longer imprinted in passports. Iranian[s], whose passports state that their location of residence is not Irani [sic], may have multiple trips to Iran, under the condition that their stay does not exceed one year.’^{[footnote 14]}

7.2.5 On 7 March 2022, the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (IRBC) published a response to a request for information about exit and entry procedures and control at airports and land borders for women (IRBC 2022 query response). The response, which cited various sources, including information obtained from professionals with relevant expertise during February 2022, stated: ‘According to sources, Iranian law and all requirements related to the entry and exit of Iran, including for women and children, are the same if one travels by land or by air.’^{[footnote 15]}

7.2.6 The July 2023 DFAT report stated: ‘Iranian nationals must [also] pay an exit tax each time they depart Iran, which increases with each outbound journey. Payments of exit taxes are made at the airport as one is departing Iran.’^{[footnote 16]}

7.3 Travel bans and restrictions

7.3.1 The July 2023 DFAT report stated:

Government authorities can impose travel bans on Iranian citizens. Reasons for a travel ban can include security concerns, financial debts, outstanding taxes and outstanding sentences awaiting enforcement. Citizens with ongoing charges or outstanding court matters and those released on bail or parole are subjected to travel bans. Civil and political activists may also be subjected to travel bans. Husbands of married women and fathers of unmarried women and underage children can request travel bans against their dependents see [Women and Children for further information]. Intelligence and law enforcement services have the power to impose travel bans without judicial oversight. Iranians under travel bans are often unaware of their status until they reach passport control at the airport and are turned back. The presence of security organisations in all Iranian airports, particularly those with border checkpoints, enables authorities to determine whether any Iranian citizen can leave the country by air.

It is not possible to assess or profile travellers who will be successful in a border crossing attempt; chances of success depend on individual circumstances of the traveller and individual sanctions against them by the government, which are not always clear.^{[footnote 17]}

7.3.2 The USSD 2023 Country Report stated: ‘The government restricted the foreign travel of some religious leaders, members of religious minorities, and scientists in sensitive fields. Numerous journalists, academics, opposition politicians, civil rights activists, and artists were subject to foreign travel bans and had their passports confiscated. Married women were not allowed to travel outside the country without permission from their husbands.’^{[footnote 18]} The USSD 2024 Iran Country Report provided no coverage of travel bans and restrictions^{[footnote 19]}.

7.3.3 On 22 November 2024, Landinfo published a report entitled ‘Thematic note: Iran: Reception and treatment of returned asylum seekers’ (English translation) (the Landinfo thematic report). Citing various sources, it stated:

A travel ban prevents a person from leaving the country. Travel bans can be issued by the courts or the prosecutor’s office at various stages of a criminal process. Other agencies such as tax authorities, property registries, or banks can also request the prosecutor to issue a travel ban …

There is no automatic issuance of a travel ban in ongoing criminal cases or for individuals who are convicted and awaiting imprisonment. This is assessed by the courts in each individual case.

When a travel ban is issued, the prosecution or the courts notify the Passport and Border Police, which has the formal responsibility for enforcing the travel ban.

A travel ban lasts for six months but can be extended for an additional six months by the courts or the prosecution. If it is not renewed, it automatically expires.

The authorities do not necessarily inform the person concerned that a travel ban has been issued in their name, but individuals can check this themselves by contacting the Passport and Border Police …

Several sources indicate that there are also two other lists against which travelling Iranians are checked independently of the systems used by the Passport and Border Police. One is maintained by the Ministry of Intelligence, the other by the Revolutionary Guard. These security services do not have formal authority to issue travel bans, but in practice, they can easily confiscate passports at the airport, thus preventing the passport holder from travelling. This can affect activists and dissidents even without a criminal case being opened against them.^{[footnote 20]}

N.B. the information quoted above, and all other COI quoted from this source throughout the rest of this CPIN, was originally published in Norwegian. See About the country information for further information about the method of translation.

7.3.4 The Landinfo thematic report, translated into English, stated: ‘Upon departure, the data systems of the Passport and Border Police will flag individuals who are subject to an exit ban.’^{[footnote 21]}

7.3.5 The IRBC 2022 query response stated: ‘… [O]nce a travel ban has been initiated against someone it remains in place until it is removed … it prevents all travel while in place and not just a specific trip … Iran’s Immigration and Passport Police Offices use a “computerized system” that is “connected with” the country’s airports, a travel ban can be implemented quickly after a request is made.’^{[footnote 22]}

7.3.6 The IRBC 2022 query response also stated: ‘An accused person against whom the Prosecutor’s Office has issued a travel ban can appeal it within 10 days from the date of issuance, at the competent court. Persons in debt – as well as women and children – who have a travel ban against them can request a permission from the attorney-general to travel abroad. He can grant them such an exception against the provision of necessary guarantees.’^{[footnote 23]}

See also Women and Children for more information about travel bans against these groups of people; paragraph 7.4.3 refers to several instances when women reportedly succeeded in evading travel bans after their husbands sought to impose the same upon them. CPIT was unable to find any other examples of individuals, including those holding debts, appealing travel bans after they were issued in the sources consulted (see Bibliography).

7.3.7 The USSD 2023 Country Report provided some examples of individuals who were subjected to travel bans during 2023:

Political activists Golrokh Ebrahimi Iraee, Majid Tavakoli, Mahmoud Ojaghlou, and Ali Bahrampour were banned from leaving the country as part of their sentences issued during the year [2023]. Charges against them included inciting persons to fight and kill each other with the intention of disrupting the country’s security, insulting the leadership, assembly and collusion against the regime, gathering and collusion against the security of the country, and propaganda activity against the Islamic Republic.

Filmmakers Mohammad Rasoulof, Masoud Kimiai, and Ali Ahmadzadeh were banned from leaving the country to attend international film festivals during the year [2023]. Filmmakers Asghar Farhadi and Manijeh Hekmat also reported that they had been banned from leaving the country or working.^{[footnote 24]}

7.4 Women

7.4.1 The IRBC 2022 query response stated:

Article 18 of Iran’s Passport Law, adopted in 1973, provides the following: (translation)

In accordance with the requirements outlined in this article, regular passports will be issued to the following persons:

… Married women, even under the age of 18, with a written consent of their husbands, and in emergency cases, the permission of the prosecutor of the city in which the passport application was made – who is obliged to provide his/her opinion either to accept or reject it within three days – would be sufficient. Women who reside abroad with their husbands and women who married a foreign husband and remain Iranian citizens are exempted from the requirement of this paragraph.

… In an interview with the Research Directorate, an adjunct professor at Carleton University, who is also an Iranian human rights lawyer, stated that the husband must “go to a public notary to sign an application” indicating his “full consent” in issuing a passport to his wife. The same source added that a man’s permission for a woman or child can now “be done online” using an official website “recently” created, to facilitate “signing permissions online,” by submitting “accompanying documents” online, filling out a form, and receiving a subsequent “Skype” (internet videoconference) call from Iranian authorities to verify his identity.^{[footnote 25]}

7.4.2 Citing 2019 correspondence with the Norwegian Embassy in Tehran from the 2021 Land info report, the IRBC 2022 query response also stated: ‘… the husband must “sign” a form on which he must also “tick for one or two foreign journeys or permanent consent”.’^{[footnote 26]}

7.4.3 The IRBC 2022 query response noted the following situations in which a married woman might not require the permission of her husband each time she wished to obtain a passport or to travel abroad:

• where a married couple included a specification in their marriage contract permitting the wife, for the duration of their marriage, to obtain passports and travel abroad without requiring the husband’s permission
• where a married woman obtained an official ‘power of attorney’ or an ‘irrevocable power of attorney’, which may be registered at a passport office. One source reported that some Iranian legal websites encouraged women to update their power of attorney every five years, in line with the frequency with which passports must be renewed

An associate professor noted that a marriage contract specification in addition to an irrevocable power of attorney would still not be enough to evade a travel ban if a husband sought to impose one (see Travel bans and restrictions). A lawyer and academic with Iran expertise, however, told the IRBC that she was aware of several cases in which the combined procedure was ‘effective’ for women^{[footnote 27]}. The same source noted a case where, upon request, the immigration and passport office reviewed the file of a woman who was unable to obtain an updated permission to travel from her husband and ‘accepted the old permission’^{[footnote 28]}.

7.4.4 With regard to unmarried women, while the IRBC response noted that various sources reported that those aged over 18 did not require permission to obtain a passport or travel abroad, it also stated that ‘… the Executive Director of the Center for Human Rights in Iran (CHRI), a US-based NGO focused on human rights conditions in Iran, stated that unmarried women between ages 18 and 40 can obtain passports without permission, but require their father’s permission to travel abroad.’^{[footnote 29]}

7.4.5 With regard to divorced women, the IRBC response noted that they were required to submit a copy of their divorce certificate with their passport application. It added that: ‘… women aged 40 or older who have been “issued a formal divorce” can obtain a passport and travel abroad “without restriction,” while those under age 40 would require permission from their “father, grandfather, or a court”.’^{[footnote 30]}

7.4.6 The IRBC 2022 query response went on to state:

… Article 19 of the Passport Law provides the following: (translation)

If the impediments of issuing a passport occur after its issuance, or according to Article 18, if those whose permission is required for the issuance of a passport withdraw their permission, passport holders will be prevented from leaving and the passport will be confiscated until the impediment is removed.

Sources stated that a husband can change his mind, withdraw his permission, and prevent his wife from exiting the country at any time during their marriage …

… Sources stated that a husband seeking to impose a travel ban on his wife would submit his request to an immigration officer at an Immigration and Passport Police Office. According to sources, the husband would need to present their marriage certificate, and “an identity card and a national card” or a copy of his birth certificate … the husband would also need to fill out a “withdrawal of permission” form which must be “notarized”. … [Additionally] the husband would need to “officially” submit his request “on paper” in a “small paragraph,” and that he “cannot phone in his withdrawal” but also does not need to “go in person”.

… if a travel ban is in place against a woman, she will have her passport “confiscated” from her at the airport or border when she attempts to exit, and she would need to report to the passport office to seek to learn about the specifics of her travel ban and case.^{[footnote 31]}

7.4.7 The IRBC 2022 query response stated: ‘… there is no mechanism for anyone to enact a travel ban against an unmarried woman aged 18 or older … [however] the process for a man to initiate a travel ban against a woman is the same for a married couple with children, and for a male guardian to an unmarried woman.’^{[footnote 32]}

7.4.8 Several sources in the IRBC response indicated that women who have had a travel ban imposed upon them by their husbands may, in the case of an emergency, apply to the Prosecutor’s Office for an exemption, allowing her to travel. For this to be granted, she would have to show that the travel is ‘necessary’^{[footnote 33]}. An adjunct professor indicated that a woman may be exempt from an existing travel ban for ‘urgent medical’ purposes (though this is less common since Iran’s medical technology has improved) or to travel for pilgrimage on a one-time permit to Mecca or Medina (Saudi Arabia)^{[footnote 34]}.

7.4.9 The IRBC response additionally stated:

… Iranian state authorities intervening to overrule a husband’s denial of permission for his wife to travel abroad “can happen” if the woman is a member of a “professional work team or a national sports team” or if they are “involved in politics,” but they “have not seen” such intervention “ever used for ordinary people”. The same source added that it is a “measure” “reserved” for “supporting people in very specific groups or jobs,” including to “travel to serve the government’s interest”.’^{[footnote 35]}

7.5 Children

7.5.1 The English translation of Article 18 of Iran’s Passport Law, included in the IRBC 2022 query response, stated that regular passports will be issued to: ‘Individuals under 18 years of age and those who are under guardianship and/or custody, with the written permission of their guardian or custodian …’^{[footnote 36]}

7.5.2 The IRBC 2022 query response also stated:

… [M]others cannot submit passport applications for children under the age of 18 … [and] would require permission from the child’s father, which is “a separate permission” from that which the husband might have provided to his wife for her own passport. … [T]he father can give “this authority” to someone else using a “public notary”. The same source noted that if the father dies, the paternal grandfather becomes the guardian, it then falls to the mother, but a mother would also need “permission of guardianship” from the Public Prosecutor’s Office.

… Sources stated that the father’s permission is required for a child to exit Iran. In contrast, the Associate Professor indicated that permission from both parents is required for a child to exit the country. The Adjunct Professor added that for children, permission to exit the country is “not fixed to the passport” as it is for women, and is instead “good for four years,” after which time it “needs to be renewed,” as renewal is not automatic.

Sources stated that even in cases where a mother has custody over a couple’s children, the father’s permission is required for the child to leave Iran. The Adjunct Professor indicated that a father can “pass guardianship” to the children’s mother at a public notary, but he could still “at any time revoke his consent of guardianship”.^{[footnote 37]}

7.5.3 The same IRBC response also stated: ‘The Adjunct Professor noted that a father can enact a travel ban against his children.’^{[footnote 38]}

7.5.4 See also Women.

7.6 Border security

7.6.1 The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) World Factbook, updated on 1 October 2025, noted that the Law Enforcement Command (FARAJA), the uniformed police of Iran and part of the Ministry of Interior, had responsibility for, amongst other things, border security via its Border Guard Command^{[footnote 39]}.

7.6.2 An article published on 13 March 2021 by Spreading Justice, a database of human rights violations created by an Iran-focused human rights organisation, Human Rights Activists (HRA)^{[footnote 40]}, indicated that FARAJA’s focus was on ensuring the security of Iran’s land and maritime borders^{[footnote 41]}.

7.6.3 In 2019, the UN Office on Drugs and Crime indicated that law enforcement officials providing airport border security included: the Anti‐Narcotics Police (ANP), Airport Police, Immigration and Passport Police, Ministry of Interior and Customs Administration of the Islamic Republic of Iran^{[footnote 42]}.

7.6.4 On 10 March 2020, the IRBC published a response to a request for information about exit and entry procedures in Iran (the IRBC 2020 query response), which cited various sources. The response noted that the Immigration and Passport Police are a subsidiary of NAJA (the former name for FARAJA^{[footnote 43]}) and stated:

It appears there are roughly four checkpoints for departures. The airport [the Imam Khomeini International Airport (IKA), on the outskirts of Tehran] is hypothetically under control of the Iran Airports Company, but in practice it is run by the Revolutionary Guard. A fair amount of arms go in and out of the airport and there is a specific branch of the Guard (Unit 190) involved in such transfers. The IRGC Intelligence Protection Organization (Sazman-e Hefazat-e Sepah) also has an Aviation Protection Unit available for the airport. There are theoretically Immigration Police, but again they are functionally under the authority of the Guard.’^{[footnote 44]}

7.6.5 The IRBC 2020 query response also stated:

Bribery at the point of entry or exit is difficult. However, Iran is also a major narcotics transhipment country and has a large addict population of its own. Drug trafficking organizations have illicit relations with the Revolutionary Guard that controls much of the economy, so bribery exists but it is happening further up the pipeline than the official entry and exit points in the country (of which there are nearly a hundred). The NAJA (Law Enforcement Forces) are primarily corrupted by the opium trade. You are more likely to find corruption and bribery at the actual entry exit point in the Baluchistan Sistan areas which are rife with foreign special operators, criminals, and smuggling.’^{[footnote 45]}

7.6.6 An article published on 25 May 2021 by Tasnim News Agency, a ‘hardline news agency close to IRGC’^{[footnote 46]} indicated that the IRGC had a ‘major role’ in ensuring the security of Iran’s borders^{[footnote 47]}.

7.6.7 The July 2023 DFAT report stated: ‘Security procedures at Imam Khomeini International Airport in Tehran are robust. They include computerised cross-checking and multiple layers of physical security and document checking. Immigration officials are considered highly competent. A source told DFAT that it was “next to impossible” to bypass security procedures at Imam Khomeini International Airport.’^{[footnote 48]} CPIT was unable to find information in the sources consulted (see Bibliography) about the level of security at other international airports in Iran.

7.6.8 The Landinfo thematic report, translated into English, stated: ‘A Western diplomatic source in Tehran states [in August 2024] that it is the police, presumably the Passport and Border Police, that handles the actual passport control [at IKA]. An employee at Tehran airport working for a foreign airline [in June 2024] confirms that it is the Revolutionary Guard that has the overall responsibility for security at the airport.’^{[footnote 49]}

7.6.9 For more information on smuggling, see the Country Policy and Information Note, Iran: Smugglers.

7.7 Use of fraudulent documents

7.7.1 The January 2021 report by Landinfo stated: ‘Iranian ID documents have advanced security features: The passport is biometric, the kart-e melli [national ID card issued to citizens aged over 15^{[footnote 50]}] contains computer chip and biometrics, while the shenasnameh [ID booklet issued at birth^{[footnote 51]}] is of passport quality, where changes should be entered using an inkjet printer. Because of these features, fake documents will be easy to reveal.’^{[footnote 52]} The same report added: ‘As the old versions of shenasnameh and kart-e melli are still in use and are far easier to manipulate, we must also consider that there may be counterfeit versions of these documents in circulation.’^{[footnote 53]}

7.7.2 For more information on the passport application process see the Landinfo report Iran: Passports, ID and civil status documents.

7.7.3 The July 2023 DFAT report stated:

Iranian identity documents include sophisticated security features and are difficult to manufacture for fraudulent use. Those that are available are expensive and out of reach for most Iranians. Stiff penalties for use of fraudulent documents act a major deterrent. Fraudulent documents are generally easy for authorities to detect and security procedures at international airports are robust, but border crossing with fraudulent documents is easier at land border crossings … [I]t may be possible to obtain a genuine identification document with the intention of impersonating another person …

Secondary forms of documentation, like military exemption cards, are technically more vulnerable to fraud, as they have less robust security features, but are expensive to obtain. Paper-based documents, including court documents, summonses, bank letters, real estate documents and tertiary certificates, are relatively easier to obtain through fraudulent means^{[footnote 54]}

7.7.4 The Landinfo thematic report, translated into English, stated:

There is a special court at Mehrabad Airport outside Tehran that deals with cases of illegal departure. A legal source in Iran stated that this court only handles cases of forgery of travel documents and illegal export of valuable items or currency. The court does not deal with illegal departure as such, but may become involved if false or forged ID papers and documents have been used. A typical illegal border crossing without a passport (outside of official border crossings) would therefore not fall under the jurisdiction of the Mehrabad court. However, a crossing through an official border crossing with a false passport could be processed there. The court is referred to as Tehran Public Prosecutor Office number 30.’^{[footnote 55]}

7.7.5 The Iran Human Rights Documentation Center (IHRDC), a self-described independent, non-profit organisation that documents and promotes accountability for human rights abuses in Iran^{[footnote 56]}, provided an English translation of the Islamic Penal Code (IPC). It noted that, under Article 525 of the IPC, anyone using a forged stamp or seal of a governmental department can be subject to one to ten years of imprisonment^{[footnote 57]}.

8. Exit via unofficial routes

8.1.1 Iran has a total of 5,894 km of land borders, which it shares with Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and Turkmenistan^{[footnote 58]}.

8.1.2 An article published by Al Jazeera on 6 July 2021 noted the border between Turkey and Iran to be 540 kilometres (335 miles) in length, mountainous, and partially protected by a barbed-wire-topped concrete wall which did ‘… little to stop thousands of mostly young people fleeing from Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran every year …’^{[footnote 59]}

8.1.3 The July 2023 DFAT report stated: ‘Overland border crossing, including via rugged mountain areas, is more achievable for some Iranians than crossing at official crossing points. Such actions can be very dangerous because of the risk of violent crime.’^{[footnote 60]}

8.1.4 Asylum Information Database (AIDA), which is managed by the European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE) and contains national reports on international protection issues in 24 countries^{[footnote 61]}, published a report on Türkiye entitled ‘Access to the territory and push backs’. The report, which was updated on 29 July 2025 and cited various sources, stated:

Türkiye constructed a wall on its Iranian border in 2018-2019. The wall includes trenches and fences, with an increasing number of watchtowers and surveillance technologies such as unmanned aerial vehicles. In 2023, a wall of 1160 kilometres, corresponding to 80 percent of the borders of Iran and Syria, and a 1234-kilometer patrol road have been completed, and the work on the remaining 20 percent continues … Based on the profiles of groups arriving in Türkiye, it is estimated that most of these interceptions are from the Iranian border … [However, t]here is no official information about how many migrants are affected regarding their nationality and which border.

In a statement delivered in December 2024, [Türkiye’s] Interior Minister Ali Yerlikaya reported that a 78-kilometer segment of the Iranian border remains unsecured, with plans to complete securing the border by the end of 2025 …

The presence of the wall has led to crossings shifting to more dangerous, rugged, and mountainous routes or taking place during winter months when the snow level is elevated. This situation increases the risk to people’s lives by forcing them to cross more hazardous routes. As a result, migrants and smugglers favour steep and risky paths with no gendarmerie or police oversight.

Increasing numbers of arrivals through the Iranian border have led to restrictive measures and arbitrary detention and deportation practices …

In 2024, individuals pushed back into Iran continued to face the risk of being left stranded in the mountainous terrain between Iran and Türkiye …

… Some of people who cross the border, including families, women, and children, are sent to removal centres, and the majority are pushed back to Iran …’^{[footnote 62]} CPIT noted that while the report did not specify how many interceptions at the border were of Iranians, it also noted ‘mainly single Afghan men being issued deportation (“T1”) forms, or being pushed back without being provided any official form.’^{[footnote 63]} CPIT also noted that Iranian passport holders are permitted to stay visa-free in Türkiye for 90 days^{[footnote 64]}.

8.1.5 On 19 June 2025, Türkiye Today, a Turkish news outlet^{[footnote 65]}, published an article which stated:

Speaking at a Thursday [19 June 2025] briefing in Ankara, Turkish National Defense Ministry spokesperson Zeki Akturk said security forces remain vigilant against potential migration movements [on the Türkiye-Iran border] but have detected no uptick in unauthorized border activity since the Israel-Iran confrontation began.

The Turkish Armed Forces will continue to take all necessary security measures proactively against possible migration movements,” Akturk told reporters, emphasizing that claims of uncontrolled migration represent “disinformation” lacking official confirmation.’^{[footnote 66]}

8.1.6 CPIT was unable to find any more, recent, information in the sources consulted (see Bibliography) on unofficial border crossings.

8.1.7 For more information on border control along the Iran-Iraq border, see the Country Policy and Information Note on Iran: Smugglers.

9. Treatment of returnees

9.1 Legislation

9.1.1 The IRBC 2022 query response stated:

Article 34 (amended in 1988) of the Passport Law provides the following: (translation)

Any Iranian who leaves the country without a passport or any travel document considered as a passport shall be sentenced to 1 to 2 years of imprisonment or a fine of one hundred thousand to five hundred thousand rials [approximately £1.77 to £8.86 GBP^{[footnote 67]}] …

… [A] 2014 report by Mohammad M.H. Kakhki, a special adviser to the Centre for Criminal Law and Justice and associate of the Centre for Iranian Studies at Durham University, indicates that a 2010 amendment to article 34 of Iran’s Passport Law states that “any Iranian who leaves the country illegally, without a valid passport or similar travel documents, will be sentenced to between one and three years imprisonment” or could receive a fine of between 500,000 and 3 million Tomans [approximately £89 to £532^{[footnote 68]} (1 toman = 10 rials^{[footnote 69]})] A copy of the 2010 amendment to article 34 of the Passport Law could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.^{[footnote 70]}

9.1.2 The same response stated: ‘… [I]t is considered a crime to leave Iran without a “valid passport,” and if a woman or child is deemed to have left Iran without a “valid passport,” the punishment “could be 2 to 6 months imprisonment or a fine or both”.^{[footnote 71]}

9.1.3 Citing information provided by a confidential source in December 2021 and March 2022, the BZ 2022 report, translated into English, stated:

According to a source, a law was introduced in 2020 intended to reduce the number of detentions for ta’zir punishments [‘punishments for crimes where a judge has discretionary power’^{[footnote 72]}] by making greater use of Article 37 of the Criminal Code, which concerns sentence reduction. This led, among other things, to judges being able to impose only fines under Article 34 of the Passport Act. The amount of fines mentioned in Article 34 has not been adjusted for inflation.^{[footnote 73]}

9.1.4 On 10 May 2023, the COI unit of the Office of the Commissioner General for Refugees and Stateless Persons (Belgium) (CGRS-CEDOCA) published a report about the Iranian authorities’ surveillance of the diaspora. The report, which cited various sources, stated:

Qavanin, the law and regulations portal of the Iranian government, and the news website Ekhtebar, which describes itself as an independent non-governmental medium specialising in Iranian law, also state that Iranians leaving the country without a valid passport or travel document can face one to two years in prison or a fine of 24 to 100 million Iranian rials (IRR) [approximately £426 to £1774 GBP^{[footnote 74]}] as of 24 April 2023). According to that portal, Article 34 of the Passport Act was amended in November 2020.’^{[footnote 75]} CPIT was unable to access the Qavanin portal and was unable to locate the Ekhtebar article. CPIT was also unable to find any further information about a 2020 amendment to the Iranian Passport Law in the sources consulted (see Bibliography).

N.B. the information quoted above was originally published in Dutch. See About the country information for further information about the method of translation.

9.1.5 The Landinfo thematic report, translated into English, stated:

According to the Passport Act of 1972 (Article 34), illegal departure can be punished with imprisonment, a fine, or both. Article 34 of the Passport Act states that (unofficial translation [into English]):

The exit of the country without a passport or documents shall be punished by a prison sentence from two months to six months of jail or by compensation from two thousand rials [approximately £0.03 GBP^{[footnote 76]}] to twenty thousand rials [approximately £0.35 GBP^{[footnote 77]}], or both.

It has been difficult to clarify what the current rates for the fines are. In 1988, the penalty framework for illegal departure is said to have been changed to a fine of 100,000 – 500,000 Rial [approximately £1.77 to £8.86 GBP^{[footnote 78]}] …, or one to two years in prison. It has also been claimed that the fine may now be significantly higher, 500,000 – 3,000,000 Tomans [approximately £89 to £532 GBP^{[footnote 79]}] … and that this is based on a legal amendment in 2010. However, an Iranian legal source [in December 2020] has stated that the passport law has not been changed since 1988, referring to the rates that were set that year.^{[footnote 80]}

9.2 Treatment of voluntary returnees

9.2.1 The July 2023 DFAT report stated:

The Iranian Government has a longstanding policy of not accepting involuntary returns. Voluntary returns are possible and are sometimes assisted by returning governments or the International Organization for Migration (IOM). In cases where an Iranian diplomatic mission has issued temporary travel documents, authorities will be forewarned of the person’s imminent return. DFAT is not aware of any legislative or social barriers to voluntary returnees finding work or shelter in Iran, nor any specific barriers to prevent voluntary returnees from returning to their home region.

… Iranians have left the country in large numbers since the 1979 revolution, and authorities accept many will seek to live and work overseas for economic reasons …

… Local sources told DFAT the greater challenges for returnees are finding work and economic considerations, which will differ from person to person depending on the location of return, family support and skills and experience.

… Millions of Iranians travel into and out of Iran each year without difficulty, including the large Iranian diaspora residing in North America, Europe, the United Arab Emirates and Australia.^{[footnote 81]}

9.2.2 On 9 January 2024, Iran International, a privately-owned, London-based media outlet that provides news for Iranians both in and outside of Iran^{[footnote 82]}, published an article which stated:

Iran’s chief justice says a significant number of Iranians living abroad express a desire to return but grapple with a lack of trust in the regime.

Gholamhossein Mohseni Ejei stated that mechanisms to foster trust between Iranians abroad and the government could help in this regard.

We should treat the Iranians returning from abroad … with utmost courtesy and dignity at key points such as airports, consulates, and embassies. In this way, the negative impact of foreign propaganda against our country can be neutralized,” he added.’^{[footnote 83]} Notwithstanding the other COI included in this note, CPIT was unable to find evidence to either support or refute that the Iranian authorities have acted upon the sentiment expressed in this statement by the chief justice.

9.2.3 The Landinfo thematic report, translated into English, stated:

Many Iranians have left their homeland since the revolution in 1979. It is estimated that between four and five million Iranians live outside Iran [according to the 2024 Iran International article^{[footnote 84]}]. If children born abroad to Iranian parents, who often also have the right to Iranian citizenship, are included, the numbers are even higher … A Western diplomatic source in Tehran reports that a double-digit number of flights arrive at Imam Khomeini Airport in Tehran daily. The vast majority of passengers are Iranians. Passports are scanned at passport control. The actual inspection goes very quickly. The diplomat, who regularly travels in and out of the country, has never observed anyone being taken aside or subjected to further checks.^{[footnote 85]}

9.2.4 The Landinfo report also stated:

According to … [the] Western diplomat in Tehran, the passports of all travellers are scanned at passport control upon entry. Through this check, passport officers are able to verify that the passport is genuine and that the information displayed on the screen, including the photograph, matches the person being checked. The process is very quick and rarely takes more than ten seconds.

Beyond this, Landinfo is not aware of what information the passport officer receives about the traveller when the passport is scanned at passport control. In a Danish report from 2009, quoting the head of passport control at IKA airport, it is confirmed that all passports are scanned on arrival. The passport officer will also check whether the person has any pending matters with the authorities. According to an international organisation in Tehran interviewed in connection with the same report, the passport officer will also check if an illegal departure has occurred. If the person has not left Iran legally, no departure will be recorded for them in the data systems. Consequently, the person will be interviewed about this on arrival.

Landinfo has not found more recent information that confirms this information, but there is reason to believe that a similar system exists today. This means that all entries and exits are registered in the data system and a warning will appear if the person has outstanding matters with the authorities or the courts.’^{[footnote 86]} Landinfo did not provide any further details regarding the basis for it having reason to believe that a similar system exists today.

9.2.5 The same Landinfo report, translated into English, added: ‘There is also an office located immediately after passport control called the “Presidency Office”. Personnel from this office can in some cases stop individuals arriving from abroad after passport control and question them.’^{[footnote 87]}

9.2.6 Citing confidential sources, the BZ 2023 report stated:

The Iranian authorities do not question every Iranian who returns. According to one source, Iranians with dual citizenship were more at risk than others of being questioned on their return during the reporting period … It is thought that this was not done randomly, but that the authorities knew in advance who to check. These rounds of questioning could sometimes last up to four hours. To avoid any problems upon their return, some Iranians only carried their Iranian passport when travelling to Iran and made no mention of having another nationality.

… There are also instances of returnees being admitted to Iran on arriving at the airport and then being subject to criminal prosecution by the Iranian authorities. According to one source, the authorities do not usually arrest a returnee immediately on arrival at the airport due to visibility and the number of people who could film the arrest on a mobile phone. They will usually make an arrest in a controllable environment. At the airport, for example, the returnee will be told that there is an issue with their passport or that they have an unpaid traffic fine and should report to the authorities later at a certain place and time. Other sources mention instances where a returnee’s passport is seized, a travel ban is imposed and they are required to come in repeatedly for questioning.^{[footnote 88]}

9.3 Laissez-passers

9.3.1 The Landinfo thematic report, translated into English, stated:

If a person wishes to voluntarily return to Iran but does not have a valid passport, a new travel document must be obtained through the Iranian embassy. Some choose to apply for an ordinary passport, while others apply for a laissez-passer (LP) [an official travel document issued by a government or international organization in lieu of a standard passport^{[footnote 89]}] because it is faster.

… In 2020, Belgian immigration authorities relayed information they had received from the [International Organization for Migration] IOM office in Tehran. The IOM explained that Iranian embassies always conduct thorough investigations of each applicant’s identity before an LP is issued. This may involve contacting the applicant’s family in Iran and asking them to help identify the applicant, for example by providing a birth certificate.^{[footnote 90]}

9.3.2 The July 2023 DFAT report stated:

Those who return on a laissez-passer are questioned by the Immigration Police at Imam Khomeini International Airport in Tehran about the circumstances of their departure and why they are traveling on a laissez-passer. Questioning usually takes between 30 minutes and one hour, however may take longer if the returnee is considered evasive in their answers and/or immigration authorities suspect a criminal history on the part of the returnee. Arrest and mistreatment are not common during this process.^{[footnote 91]}

9.3.3 Citing confidential sources (and the July 2023 DFAT report), the BZ 2023 report stated: ‘In principle, it makes little difference what kind of document a person has with them on their return. However, it is unusual for a returnee to travel on a laissez-passer. In that case, there is a high risk that the authorities will question the returnee on arrival about their stay abroad.’^{[footnote 92]} 9.3.4 The Landinfo thematic report, translated into English, stated:

It is … the “Presidency Office” that conducts the interrogation and control of individuals returning on LP, according to the employee at Tehran airport [who worked for a foreign airline] … the so-called Presidency Office, occasionally requests passenger lists from airlines, but this does not happen systematically. Sometimes airlines are also asked whether specific names appear on the passenger lists. Airlines are obliged to answer such questions and to provide passenger lists if requested.^{[footnote 93]}

9.3.5 The same Landinfo report, translated into English, added:

Regardless of whether the airport authorities receive specific information about the return or not, an LP will reveal an irregularity that will probably be investigated further, according to IOM [in October 2020].

IOM also informs [in August 2024] that everyone returning [voluntarily] through their [assisted] return programme and travelling on LP will be checked upon arrival. It is the Passport and Border Police who carry out the checks. The checks usually proceed relatively quickly and the authorities have beforehand verified them against relevant registers.

In a few cases, there are personal factors that result in additional thorough investigations being carried out. This could, for example, involve information about criminal matters in Iran or abroad, or other pending cases in the Iranian legal system. In such cases, the individual may be held for an extended period and potentially have assets seized. In a handful of cases, the individual has also been released after questioning at the airport but later summoned for further interrogation. It is therefore the person’s prior history and the knowledge of the Iranian authorities about this that determine the extent of the control at the airport [according to the IOM].

There are, however, no remarks about Iran in IOM’s internal documents regarding country-specific challenges related to return. This does not mean that return to Iran is without risk, but that the risk is not assessed to be at a level that would require IOM to suspend the facilitation of returns to the country [according to IOM Norway in January 2023].^{[footnote 94]}

9.4 Refused asylum seekers

9.4.1 The July 2023 DFAT report stated: ‘In general, authorities pay little attention to failed asylum seekers on their return to Iran. DFAT understands their actions (including social media posts about sur place activities) are not routinely investigated by authorities. Iranians with a public profile in Australia (or elsewhere) may have activities visible on social media tracked by the Iranian government.’^{[footnote 95]}

9.4.2 Citing confidential sources, the BZ 2023 report stated:

A person’s reason for leaving Iran, for example in order to seek asylum, may play a role when they return, according to one source. If the authorities are aware that the returnee applied for asylum and is returning because their application was unsuccessful, this can significantly increase the risk of encountering difficulties. The authorities could then argue, for example, that the returnee applied for asylum because they had done something in Iran that was not allowed.

According to the same source, this poses a greater risk than a person’s religious background or sexual orientation, or whether they are a single woman.

… According to another source, the authorities will interview almost everyone they know has applied for asylum to find out the reason for their asylum application and whether they had engaged in political or religious activities. The question of whether there are indications that asylum seekers who have exhausted all legal remedies are treated differently by the Iranian authorities given the political and social unrest could not be answered due to lack of information.

… If the Iranian authorities know about a returnee’s asylum application, there are many ways in which they could find out [information about it], for example through friends or family, or by monitoring text messages or phone calls. The authorities could question someone about this matter on their return. They could also discover such information by looking through the social media accounts of the person in question and of others.^{[footnote 96]}

9.4.3 The Landinfo thematic report, translated into English, stated:

There is little information on the situation for returned asylum seekers in Iran …

[In 2019,] Dutch authorities indicate[d] that an asylum seeker holding a valid Iranian passport can travel freely back to Iran in the same way as other travellers. In such cases, Iranian authorities will not necessarily detect that the individual has sought asylum in another country.

However, Iranians applying for a new passport at Iranian embassies must state the basis of their residency in the host country. If they are residing based on having sought asylum, it has been the practice that they must present a written declaration explaining their departure from Iran, how they obtained asylum, and their current situation/status.

In a separate application form for a passport, there is also a field where an apology for having applied for asylum is required.

The individual is to tick the following statement:

I, the undersigned: … by expressing remorse for having applied for asylum in my country of residence, request to receive consular services from the representation of the Islamic Republic of Iran.

This form is no longer available on the websites of the Iranian Embassy in Oslo, but is found on the pages of the Iranian Foreign Ministry and on the websites of some other Iranian embassies. Therefore, Landinfo is uncertain about how this is practised today.^{[footnote 97]}

9.4.4 The Landinfo report, translated into English, also stated:

… [R]eturned asylum seekers can be stopped and searched at the airport upon their return to Iran, and … those who have travelled out illegally may be fined and/or imprisoned … The sources are relatively vague regarding the exact reactions a returnee [asylum seeker] may experience. Often, reference is made to “problems” or “difficulties” in connection with return, without specifying what exactly is meant by this.

When it comes to what may trigger reactions, different sources emphasise different aspects. It is not always clear whether the statements are based on empirical evidence and knowledge of specific cases, or if they are speculations based on general knowledge about Iran. Overall, there is little specific and verifiable information about concrete events. Furthermore, the sources rarely differentiate between forced and voluntary return in their analyses.^{[footnote 98]}

9.4.5 The Landinfo thematic report, translated into English, added:

The Dutch authorities point out [in 2019] that there are no laws in Iran that criminalise seeking asylum in another country … Recently, Landinfo has not found specific indications that returned individuals have been prosecuted or experienced other reactions solely on the basis of having sought asylum. However, we must caution that we know very little about what has caused reactions in specific cases that have been reported.

… There is a general impression that individuals who have been under government scrutiny before travelling abroad may be subject to repercussions upon their return. The information that the authorities have about a person’s activities prior to departure will likely attach to them and influence their treatment upon return, regardless of how long a person has been out of the country.

It may also be significant what information the authorities have obtained about a returned person’s activities abroad, and to what extent such actions are perceived as harmful to the regime. However, the sources’ assessments vary somewhat regarding the type of foreign activity that the authorities may take an interest in.^{[footnote 99]}

9.4.6 The thematic report, translated into English, additionally stated:

The Danish Immigration Service has spoken with the Kurdish Human Rights Network (KHRN) and the Association of Human Rights in Kurdistan – Geneva (KMMK-G) about the issues of return for Iranian Kurds. KHRN believed that a person who has applied for asylum abroad will face “difficulties” because they will be questioned about the reasons for their asylum application, what they have said about the Iranian authorities, and what actions they have taken against the government. More specific information is not provided in the report.

KMMK-G believed that Iranian Kurds are often suspected of being activists, especially if they have exited Iran without permission. Additionally, the source claimed that those returning from Europe would face greater suspicion than those returning from the Kurdistan region of Iraq (KRI): some would be arrested, while others would not.^{[footnote 100]}

See pages 32 and 33 of the DIS report, entitled ‘Iranian Kurds’, published in February 2020, for further information.

9.4.7 Landinfo, translated into English, added:

There are certain reports that returned asylum seekers have been arrested and imprisoned and/or faced other repercussions upon their return to Iran. Such individual cases, however, are poorly suited to illuminate the issue of returns. The information that emerges from reports on specific cases is difficult to verify. There are often strong interests at play, which can create diverging descriptions of reality and prevent actual conditions and real causal relationships from coming to light. Therefore, the circumstances surrounding and the background of the arrests are often unclear … we [Landinfo] have refrained from delving further into descriptions of individual cases.^{[footnote 101]}

9.4.8 For more information on sur place activities including the monitoring of such activities and social media posts, Christians and Christian converts, sexual orientation, women in Iran including early and forced marriage and honour-based violence, and Kurdish and Kurdish political groups, see the relevant Country Policy and Information Notes for Iran.

9.4.9 See also Illegal exits.

9.5 Illegal exits

9.5.1 Individuals applying for their first passport who left Iran illegally must complete a form to have their illegal departure investigated (see also paragraph 7.1.7)^{[footnote 102]}.

9.5.2 The BZ 2022 report, translated into English, stated: ‘… [L]eaving the country without a passport, leaving the country with false documents, and violating an exit ban are considered illegal departure … According to DFAT [in 2020^{[footnote 103]}], criminal prosecution for an illegal departure, if it occurs, often takes place alongside other unrelated offences.’^{[footnote 104]}

9.5.3 The July 2023 DFAT report stated: ‘Sources report the government knows of those who have departed illegally, such as via an unauthorised border crossing, and that such people will face consequences such as the inability to get a passport in the future.’^{[footnote 105]}

9.5.4 Citing confidential sources, the BZ 2023 report stated:

At every border crossing, Iranians receive a stamp in their passport, both on leaving and entering the country. If an Iranian has left the country with a passport but does not have an exit stamp, they will be questioned on this matter when they return to Iran. If it emerges that the person has left Iran illegally … [then u]nless this person is wanted by the authorities for other reasons, illegal exit under Section 34 of the Passport Act is usually punished by a fine.

… According to one source, whether a person left Iran legally or illegally may play a role on their return. If someone fled the country illegally, this can be seen as an aggravating factor.^{[footnote 106]}

CPIT noted that, in respect of the part of the above quote which refers to illegal exit usually being punished by a fine (unless the person is wanted by the authorities for other reasons), the BZ report also cited the previous version of this CPIN (Version 6.0), published in May 2022. The COI has been included in this version of the CPIN, however, on the basis that the BZ report cites a second, albeit confidential, source for the same information.

9.5.5 The Landinfo thematic report, translated into English, stated:

It is not entirely clear what reactions a returnee can expect if it is discovered that he/she left Iran irregularly. Illegal departure includes everything from leaving the country without a passport or with false documents, to defying a direct departure ban.

… If illegal departure is prosecuted, the most common punishment seems to be a fine or a suspended prison sentence – unless there is suspicion of other criminal activities as well. This is reported by a legal source in Iran [in December 2020]. If the escape has been related to evading prosecution, involvement in criminal activities such as smuggling, human trafficking or assisting militant groups’ operations at the border, the response will be much harsher. However, in such cases it will be punished under the provisions of the penal code for the relevant circumstances, according to the legal source.

Other sources also indicate that fines are the most common penalty for illegal departure, unless the person is also wanted for other matters.^{[footnote 107]}

9.5.6 With regard to women/mothers who unsuccessfully attempt to exit Iran without the required permissions see [Women and Children], the IRBC 2022 query response stated:

… [A] woman who attempted to exit Iran without the required permission would not face any criminal penalty and would be directed by the customs immigration officer to report to the passport office to discuss her case. According to the Adjunct Professor, to exit Iran without required permissions is to commit the crime of travelling “illegally” under the Passport Law. The same source noted that if a woman attempted to exit Iran with her children without the required permissions, the mother would be deemed to have committed the crime of “illegal exit”.

… [One source noted] that an unsuccessful attempt by a mother and child to exit Iran without a valid passport could result in her being “charged with attempted illegal exit”…[and]…that if a mother seeks to leave Iran with her children with a “valid passport” but without the father’s permission for the children to exit Iran, she can be “charged with illegal prevention of visitation as well as kidnapping”.

… The … [Associate Professor] added that beyond having her passport taken away, “no other action” would be taken against … [a woman against who a travel ban is in place who attempts to exit from the airport].^{[footnote 108]}

9.5.7 CPIT was only able to find one recent example of an individual being prosecuted for illegal exit. The man, reportedly sentenced to death because of his political activities, was also sentenced to one additional year of imprisonment as a result of having exited Iran illegally^{[footnote 109] [footnote 110]}. According to available evidence, he remained in detention as of July 2025^{[footnote 111]}.

9.5.8 See also Refused asylum seekers.

Research methodology

The country of origin information (COI) in this note has been carefully selected in accordance with the general principles of COI research as set out in the Common EU [European Union] Guidelines for Processing Country of Origin Information (COI), April 2008, and the Austrian Centre for Country of Origin and Asylum Research and Documentation’s (ACCORD), Researching Country Origin Information – Training Manual, 2024. Namely, taking into account the COI’s relevance, reliability, accuracy, balance, currency, transparency and traceability.

Sources and the information they provide are carefully considered before inclusion. Factors relevant to the assessment of the reliability of sources and information include:

• the motivation, purpose, knowledge and experience of the source
• how the information was obtained, including specific methodologies used
• the currency and detail of information
• whether the COI is consistent with and/or corroborated by other sources

Commentary may be provided on source(s) and information to help readers understand the meaning and limits of the COI.

Wherever possible, multiple sourcing is used and the COI compared to ensure that it is accurate and balanced, and provides a comprehensive and up-to-date picture of the issues relevant to this note at the time of publication.

The inclusion of a source is not, however, an endorsement of it or any view(s) expressed.

Each piece of information is referenced in a footnote.

Full details of all sources cited and consulted in compiling the note are listed alphabetically in the bibliography.

Terms of Reference

The ‘Terms of Reference’ (ToR) provides a broad outline of the issues relevant to the scope of this note and forms the basis for the country information.

The following topics were identified prior to drafting as relevant and on which research was undertaken:

• Exit procedures at official ports
  • Exit procedures, including passports and exit permits
  • Travel bans or alerts
  • Women
  • Border security
  • Incidence of bribery to pass through immigration control
  • Use of fraudulent documents
• Border crossings for exit via unofficial routes
• Treatment of returnees
  • who exited illegally
  • in general
  • refused asylum seekers

Bibliography

Sources cited

Al Jazeera, Refugees make risky journeys from Iran across Turkey, 6 July 2021. Accessed: 7 October 2025

Asylum Information Database (AIDA), European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE),

• About AIDA, no date. Accessed: 15 December 2025

• Türkiye Country Report: Access to the territory and push backs, updated 29 July 2025. Accessed: 15 December 2025

Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT),

• DFAT Country Information Report Iran, 14 April 2020. Accessed: 9 October 2025

• DFAT Country Information Report Iran, 24 July 2023. Accessed: 22 September 2025

BBC Monitoring, Media Guide: Iran (accessed via subscription), 16 January 2025. Accessed: 7 October 2025

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) World Factbook, Iran, updated 1 October 2025. Accessed: 7 October 2025

Danish Immigration Service (DIS), Iranian Kurds, February 2020. Accessed: 8 October 2025

DIS and Danish Refugee Council (DRC), DIS and DRC, Iran: Judicial issues, February 2018. Accessed: 6 October 2025

Government of Netherlands, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (BZ),

• General Country of Origin Information Report on Iran, September 2023. Accessed: 23 September 2025

• General official report Iran (translated into English), 31 May 2022. Accessed: 3 October 2025

Hengaw Organization for Human Rights (Hengaw), Eight political prisoners sentenced to death and long-term imprisonment in Tehran, 2 December 2024. Accessed: 8 October 2025

Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (IRBC),

• Iran: Exit and entry procedures at airports and land borders for women, including required documentation; mechanisms for a male spouse or relative to control and/or prohibit international travel of female spouse or relative and children, including access to identity documents; treatment of women and children who attempt to leave Iran without prior permission (2020–February 2022), 7 March 2022. Accessed: 23 September 2025

• Iran: Exit and entry procedures at airports and land borders, particularly at the Imam Khomeini International Airport; whether authorities alert border officials of individuals they are looking for; incidence of bribery of Iranian border officials to facilitate departure; the punishment for border officers caught taking bribes (2017–February 2020), 10 March 2020. Accessed: 6 October 2025

International Organization for Migration (IOM), Homepage, no date. Accessed: 1 October 2025

Iran Human Rights Documentation Center (IHRDC),

• Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran – Book Five (Article 525), 15 July 2015. Accessed: 7 October 2025

• Mission, no date. Accessed: 7 October 2025

Iran Human Rights Society, Pouya Ghobadi Bistouni: A Political Prisoner Facing Death in Iran, 23 July 2025. Accessed: 9 October 2025

Iran International,

• About Us, no date. Accessed: 9 October 2025

• Judiciary Chief Claims Iranians Abroad Want To Return But Lack Trust, 9 January 2024. Accessed: 9 October 2025

IranWire, Across Mountain Borders: The Story of Iranian Illegal Immigrants in Turkey, 22 June 2020. Accessed: 7 October 2025

Irun Digital Bank, Iranian Money: Understanding Rials, Tomans, and Exchange Rates, 13 May 2025. Accessed: 8 October 2025

Islamic Republic of Iran Ministry of Foreign Affairs,

• Issuing First Passport, no date. Accessed: 6 October 2025   

• Multiple Exit Stamp, no date. Accessed: 6 October 2025

Landinfo,

• Iran: Passports, ID and civil status documents, 5 January 2021. Accessed: 6 October 2025

• Thematic note: Iran: Reception and processing of returned asylum seekers (translated into English), 22 November 2024. Accessed: 23 September 2025

Microsoft, Skype is retiring in May 2025: What you need to know, updated June 2025. Accessed: 2 October 2025

Office of the Commissioner General for Refugees and Stateless Persons (Belgium), COI Unit (CGRS-CEDOCA), Surveillance of the diaspora by the Iranian authorities (translated into English), 10 May 2023. Accessed: 3 October 2025

Republic of Türkiye, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Visa Information For Foreigners, no date. Accessed: 15 December 2025

Spreading Justice,

• About, no date. Accessed: 7 October 2025

• The History of the Law Enforcement Command of the Islamic Republic of Iran (FARAJA), 13 March 2021. Accessed: 7 October 2025

Tasnim News Agency, IRGC Securing Iran’s Borders: General Salami, 25 May 2021. Accessed: 7 October 2025

Türkiye Today,

• About Us, no date. Accessed: 7 October 2025

• Türkiye reports no surge in border crossings amid Israel-Iran tensions, 19 June 2025. Accessed: 7 October 2025

Ultimate Lexicon, Laissez-Passer: Definition, Examples & Quiz, updated 21 September 2025. Accessed: 8 October 2025

UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), UNODC in Iran increased Air Border Security Capacity of Iranian Law Enforcement, 13 November 2019. Accessed: 7 October 2025

US State Department (USSD),

• 2023 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 23 April 2024. Accessed: 6 October 2025

• 2024 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 12 August 2025. Accessed: 6 October 2025

XE.com,

• Currency Converter – Canadian Dollars to British Pounds, no date. Accessed: 8 October 2025

• Currency Converter – Euros to British Pounds, no date. Accessed: 8 October 2025

• Currency Converter – Iranian Rials to British Pounds, no date. Accessed: 8 October 2025

Sources consulted but not cited

Amnesty International,       

• The State of the World’s Human Rights 2024, 23 April 2024. Accessed: 7 October 2025

• The State of the World’s Human Rights 2025, 28 April 2025. Accessed: 7 October 2025

Daily Sabah, 20-km Turkish wall on Iran border to prevent migrant wave built, 7 October 2021. Accessed: 8 October 2025

Freedom House,

• Freedom in the World 2024, 29 February 2024. Accessed: 9 October 2025

• Freedom in the World 2025, 26 February 2025. Accessed: 9 October 2025

Human Rights Watch (HRW),

• World Report 2024, 11 January 2025. Accessed: 9 October 2025

• World Report 2025, 16 January 2025. Accessed: 9 October 2025

US State Department (USSD),

• 2023 Trafficking in Persons Report, 15 June 2023. Accessed: 7 October 2025

• 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report, 24 June 2024. Accessed: 7 October 2025

• 2025 Trafficking in Persons Report, 30 September 2025. Accessed: 7 October 2025

Version control and feedback

Clearance

Below is information on when this note was cleared:

• version 7.0
• valid from 19 December 2025

Official – sensitive: Not for disclosure – Start of section

The information on this page has been removed as it is restricted for internal Home Office use

Official – sensitive: Not for disclosure – End of section

Changes from last version of this note

Updated COI and assessment.

Feedback to the Home Office

Our goal is to provide accurate, reliable and up-to-date COI and clear guidance. We welcome feedback on how to improve our products. If you would like to comment on this note, please email the Country Policy and Information Team.

Independent Advisory Group on Country Information

The Independent Advisory Group on Country Information (IAGCI) was set up in March 2009 by the Independent Chief Inspector of Borders and Immigration to support them in reviewing the efficiency, effectiveness and consistency of approach of COI produced by the Home Office.

The IAGCI welcomes feedback on the Home Office’s COI material. It is not the function of the IAGCI to endorse any Home Office material, procedures or policy. The IAGCI may be contacted at:

Independent Advisory Group on Country Information
Independent Chief Inspector of Borders and Immigration
3rd Floor
28 Kirby Street
London
EC1N 8TE

Email: chiefinspector@icibi.gov.uk

Information about the IAGCI’s work and a list of the documents which have been reviewed by the IAGCI can be found on the Independent Chief Inspector’s pages of the gov.uk website.

1. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran (paragraph 1.4), 24 July 2023 ↩

2. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran (paragraph 2.206), 24 July 2023 ↩

3. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran (paragraph 2.208), 24 July 2023 ↩

4. BZ, General official report Iran (translated into English) (page 5), 31 May 2022 ↩

5. BZ, General official report Iran (translated into English) (section 1.2.9.1), 31 May 2022 ↩

6. BZ, General Country of Origin Information Report on Iran (Introduction), September 2023 ↩

7. BZ, General Country of Origin Information Report on Iran (section 3.2.4.3), September 2023 ↩

8. BZ, General Country of Origin Information Report on Iran (section 3.2.4.2), September 2023 ↩

9. Iran Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Issuing First Passport, no date ↩

10. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran (paragraphs 2.205 and 2.206), 24 July 2023 ↩

11. USSD, 2023 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices (page 48), 23 April 2024 ↩

12. USSD, 2024 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 12 August 2025 ↩

13. Iran Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Multiple Exit Stamp, no date ↩

14. Iran Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Multiple Exit Stamp, no date ↩

15. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 1), 7 March 2022 ↩

16. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran (paragraph 2.205), 24 July 2023 ↩

17. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran (paragraphs 2.207 and 2.208), 24 July 2023 ↩

18. USSD, 2023 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices (page 48), 23 April 2024 ↩

19. USSD, 2024 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 12 August 2025 ↩

20. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (section 4.1), 22 November 2024 ↩

21. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (section 3.2), 22 November 2024 ↩

22. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 2.1), 7 March 2022 ↩

23. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 3.1), 7 March 2022 ↩

24. USSD, 2023 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices (pages 48 to 49), 23 April 2024 ↩

25. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 1.1), 7 March 2022 ↩

26. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 1.1), 7 March 2022 ↩

27. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 1.1.1), 7 March 2022 ↩

28. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 1.1), 7 March 2022 ↩

29. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 1.2), 7 March 2022 ↩

30. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 1.2), 7 March 2022 ↩

31. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (sections 2.1 and 4), 7 March 2022 ↩

32. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 2.1), 7 March 2022 ↩

33. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 3.1), 7 March 2022 ↩

34. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 3.1), 7 March 2022 ↩

35. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 3.1), 7 March 2022 ↩

36. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 1.1), 7 March 2022 ↩

37. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (sections 1.2 and 2.2), 7 March 2022 ↩

38. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 2.1), 7 March 2022 ↩

39. CIA World Factbook, Iran (Military and Security), updated 1 October 2025 ↩

40. Spreading Justice, About, no date ↩

41. Spreading Justice, The History of the Law Enforcement Command … (FARAJA), 13 March 2021 ↩

42. UNODC, UNODC In Iran Increased Air Border Security Capacity Of Iranian …, 13 November 2019 ↩

43. Spreading Justice, The History of the Law Enforcement Command … (FARAJA), 13 March 2021 ↩

44. IRBC, Iran: Exit and entry procedures at airports and land border … (section 1.2), 10 March 2020 ↩

45. IRBC, Iran: Exit and entry procedures at airports and land border … (section 3), 10 March 2020 ↩

46. BBC Monitoring, Media Guide: Iran (Main news agencies) (via subscription), 16 January 2025 ↩

47. Tasnim News Agency, IRGC Securing Iran’s Borders: General Salami, 25 May 2021 ↩

48. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran (paragraph 2.209), 24 July 2023 ↩

49. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (section 3.1), 22 November 2024 ↩

50. Landinfo, Iran: Passports, ID and civil status documents (page 21), 5 January 2021 ↩

51. Landinfo, Iran: Passports, ID and civil status documents (page 8), 5 January 2021 ↩

52. Landinfo, Iran: Passports, ID and civil status documents (page 43), 5 January 2021 ↩

53. Landinfo, Iran: Passports, ID and civil status documents (page 43), 5 January 2021 ↩

54. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran (paragraphs 2.217 and 2.218), 24 July 2023 ↩

55. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (section 5.1), 22 November 2024 ↩

56. IHRDC, Mission, no date ↩

57. IHRDC, Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran – Book Five (Article 525), 15 July 2015 ↩

58. CIA World Factbook, Iran (Geography), updated 1 October 2025 ↩

59. Al Jazeera, Refugees make risky journeys from Iran across Turkey, 6 July 2021 ↩

60. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran (paragraph 2.208), 24 July 2023 ↩

61. AIDA, ECRE, About AIDA, no date ↩

62. AIDA, ECRE, Türkiye … Access to the territory and push backs, updated 29 July 2025 ↩

63. AIDA, ECRE, Türkiye … Access to the territory and push backs, updated 29 July 2025 ↩

64. Republic of Türkiye, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Visa Information For Foreigners (Iran), no date ↩

65. Türkiye Today, About Us, no date ↩

66. Türkiye Today, Türkiye reports no surge in border crossings …, 19 June 2025 ↩

67. XE.com, Currency Converter – Iranian Rials to British Pounds, 8 October 2025 ↩

68. XE.com, Currency Converter – Iranian Rials to British Pounds, 8 October 2025 ↩

69. Irun Digital Bank, Iranian Money: Understanding Rials, Tomans …, 13 May 2025 ↩

70. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 4), 7 March 2022 ↩

71. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 4), 7 March 2022 ↩

72. BZ, General official report Iran (translated into English) (footnote 109 on page 18), 31 May 2022 ↩

73. BZ, General official report Iran (translated into English) (section 1.2.9.4), 31 May 2022 ↩

74. XE.com, Currency Converter – Iranian Rials to British Pounds, 8 October 2025 ↩

75. CGRS-CEDOCA, Surveillance of the diaspora … (translated) (pages 13 to 14), 10 May 2023 ↩

76. XE.com, Currency Converter – Iranian Rials to British Pounds, 8 October 2025 ↩

77. XE.com, Currency Converter – Iranian Rials to British Pounds, 8 October 2025 ↩

78. XE.com, Currency Converter – Iranian Rials to British Pounds, 8 October 2025 ↩

79. XE.com, Currency Converter – Iranian Rials to British Pounds, 8 October 2025 ↩

80. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (section 5), 22 November 2024 ↩

81. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran (paragraphs 2.202 to 2.205), 24 July 2023 ↩

82. Iran International, About Us, no date ↩

83. Iran International, Judiciary Chief Claims Iranians Abroad Want To Return …, 9 January 2024 ↩

84. Iran International, Judiciary Chief Claims Iranians Abroad Want To Return …, 9 January 2024 ↩

85. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (sections 6.1 and 6.2), 22 November 2024 ↩

86. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (section 3.2), 22 November 2024 ↩

87. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (section 3.1), 22 November 2024 ↩

88. BZ, General Country of Origin Information Report … (sections 5.2.1 and 5.2.8), September 2023 ↩

89. Ultimate Lexicon, Laissez-Passer: Definition, Examples & Quiz, updated 21 September 2025 ↩

90. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (section 2.1.1), 22 November 2024 ↩

91. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran (paragraph 2.203), 24 July 2023 ↩

92. BZ, General Country of Origin Information Report on Iran (section 5.2.1), September 2023 ↩

93. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (sections 3.1 and 3.2), 22 November 2024 ↩

94. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (section 3.3), 22 November 2024 ↩

95. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran (paragraph 2.203), 24 July 2023 ↩

96. BZ, General Country of Origin Information Report … (sections 5.2.1 and 5.2.4), September 2023 ↩

97. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (sections 1.1 and 6.2), 22 November 2024 ↩

98. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (section 6), 22 November 2024 ↩

99. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (sections 6.3 and 6.4), 22 November 2024 ↩

100. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (section 6.5), 22 November 2024 ↩

101. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (section 6.6), 22 November 2024 ↩

102. Iran Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Issuing First Passport, no date ↩

103. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran, 14 April 2020 ↩

104. BZ, General official report Iran (translated into English) (section 5.2.3), 31 May 2022 ↩

105. DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report Iran (paragraph 2.208), 24 July 2023 ↩

106. BZ, General Country of Origin Information Report … (sections 3.2.4.4 and 5.2.1), September 2023 ↩

107. Landinfo, … returned asylum seekers (translated) (section 5), 22 November 2024 ↩

108. IRBC, … Exit and entry procedures … for women … (section 4), 7 March 2022 ↩

109. Hengaw, Eight political prisoners sentenced to death …, 2 December 2024 ↩

110. Iran Human Rights Society, Pouya Ghobadi Bistouni …, 23 July 2025 ↩

111. Iran Human Rights Society, Pouya Ghobadi Bistouni …, 23 July 2025 ↩