Research and analysis

RIFE 31 Appendices, Radioactivity in Food and the Environment, 2025

Updated 29 October 2026

Appendix 1 Disposals of radioactive waste

Tables A1.1 to A1.4 downloadable in Open Document Spreadsheet (ODS) Format on the main RIFE page

Summary of unintended leakages, spillages, emissions or unusual findings of radioactive substances from nuclear licensed sites in the UK in 2025 (see Table A1.5 in the ODS file)

Dounreay, June 2024

Summary of incident

Nuclear Restoration Services (NRS) notified SEPA of possible loss of radioactively contaminated water to the ground from the Carbon Bed Filter (CBF) structure located within the Fuel Cycle Area.

Consequences and actions taken

NRS’ investigation concluded that there was a small leak from the CBF. NRS has subsequently removed water from the structure and installed level monitoring equipment.

In July 2025 SEPA issued a regulatory notice requiring NRS to:

• undertake a review of existing groundwater monitoring arrangements
• assess compliance with the requirement to dispose of radioactive waste via an authorised route
• undertake characterisation to establish the extent of the radioactive contamination and develop a programme for undertaking the appropriate remediation

Dounreay, August 2024

Summary of incident

NRS informed SEPA that very low levels of radioactivity had been identified in samples taken from a sump collecting water ingress within a non-radioactive facility on the Dounreay site. The arrangements in place at the time involved the intercepted water being pumped from the sump and discharged to the marine environment via the non-active drainage system, which is not an authorised route for the disposal of liquid radioactive waste. NRS subsequently undertook work to estimate the annual volume discharged from the sump and the radionuclide components present.

Consequences and actions taken

SEPA’s investigation concluded that NRS had contravened conditions of its EASR radioactive substances authorisation. In October 2025, SEPA issued a Regulatory Notice requiring NRS to undertake a review of the management arrangements in place for the disposal of aqueous liquid waste.

Dungneness, February 2025

Summary of incident

Nuclear Restoration Services (NRS) Limited notified the Environment Agency of two small perforations to the Reactor 1 Blowdown Stack and a crack observed within the Magnox Dissolution plant ventilation system. Repairs were actioned promptly.

Consequences and actions taken

NRS Limited concluded that the environmental impacts were likely to be negligible due to the location and size of the pipework faults. In November 2025, the Environment Agency issued a Radioactive Substances Compliance Assessment Report (RASCAR) with three CCS4 non-compliances. Subsequent to further follow-up investigations a Warning Letter was issued regarding asset management of gaseous stacks and resource capability in 2026. NRS Limited have provided a response to the actions which are currently being assessed by the Environment Agency.

Appendix 2 Abbreviations and Glossary

AGR

Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor

AWE

Atomic Weapons Establishment

Cefas

Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Aquaculture Science

DESNZ

Department for Energy Security & Net Zero

DSRL

Dounreay Site Restoration Limited

Euratom

European Atomic Energy Community

EASR

Environmental Authorisations (Scotland) Regulations 2018

EPR

Environmental Permitting Regulations

EPR 16

Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2016

EU

European Union

FEPA

Food and Environment Protection Act

FSA

Food Standards Agency

FSS

Food Standards Scotland

GES

Good Environmental Status

HAW

Higher Activity Radioactive Waste

HPA

Health Protection Agency

ICRP

International Commission on Radiological Protection

LLW

Low-Level Waste

LLWR

Low Level Waste Repository

LoA

Letter of Agreement

MOD

Ministry of Defence

MRF

Metals Recycling Facility

NDA

Nuclear Decommissioning Authority

NDAWG

National Dose Assessment Working Group

NIEA

Northern Ireland Environment Agency

NORM

Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material

NRPB

National Radiological Protection Board

NRS

Nuclear Restoration Services

NRW

Natural Resources Wales

NRTE

Naval Reactor Test Establishment

NWS

Nuclear Waste Services

OBT

Organically Bound Tritium

ONR

Office for Nuclear Regulation

OSPAR

Oslo and Paris Convention for the Protection of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic

PRAG(D)

Particles Retrieval Advisory Group (Dounreay)

PHE

Public Health England

RIFE

Radioactivity in Food and the Environment

RRDL

Rosyth Royal Dockyard Limited

RSS

Radioactive Substances Strategy

SEPA

Scottish Environment Protection Agency

STW

Sewage Treatment Works

THORP

Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant

UKHSA

UK Health Security Agency (formerly PHE and HPA)

Absorbed dose

The ionising radiation energy absorbed in a material per unit mass. The unit for absorbed dose is the gray (Gy) which is equivalent to J kg^-1.

Artificial radionuclides

These are radioactive isotopes that are not found readily in nature. They are generally produced during nuclear power generation, nuclear fuel reprocessing, from nuclear weapons testing or in specialist devices by neutron bombardment.

Authorised Premises

These are premises that has been authorised by the environment agencies to discharge to the environment.

Becquerel

One radioactive transformation per second.

Bioaccumulation

Excretion may occur; however, the rate of excretion is less than the rate of intake + accumulation.

Biota

Flora and fauna.

Canteen meals

Canteen meals are used to represent a typical or mixed diet at locations remote from nuclear sites throughout the UK. Prior to leaving the EU, these data were collected and reported to comply with Articles 35 and 36 of Euratom. These samples are maintained to demonstrate compliance with Euratom recommendations. Additional information is provided in Section 2.1.3.

Committed effective dose

The sum of the committed equivalent doses for all organs and tissues in the body resulting from an intake (of a radionuclide), having been weighted by their tissue weighting factors. The unit of committed effective dose is the sievert (Sv). The ‘committed’ refers to the fact that the dose is received over a number of years, but it is accounted for in the year of the intake of the activity.

Direct radiation

Ionising radiation which arises directly from processes or operations on premises using radioactive substances and not as a result of discharges of those substances to the environment.

Dose

Shortened form of ‘effective dose’ or ‘absorbed dose’.

Dose limits

Maximum permissible dose resulting from ionising radiation from practices covered by the Euratom Basic Safety Standards Directive, excluding medical exposures. It applies to the sum of the relevant doses from external exposures in the specified period and the 50 year committed doses (up to age 70 for children) from intakes in the same period. Currently, the limit has been defined as 1mSv per year for the UK. The dose limit for external exposure to skin (for example, from handling fishing gear) is 50mSv. The dose limits apply to all age groups.

Dose rates

The radiation dose delivered per unit of time.

Effective dose

The sum of the equivalent doses from internal and external radiation in all tissue and organs of the body, having been weighted by their tissue weighting factors. The unit of effective dose is the sievert (Sv).

Environmental materials

Environmental materials include freshwater, grass, seawater, seaweed, sediment, soil and various species of plants.

Equivalent dose

The absorbed dose in a tissue or organ weighted for the type and quality of the radiation by a radiation-weighting factor. The unit of equivalent dose is the sievert (Sv).

External dose

Doses to humans from sources that do not involve ingestion or inhalation of the radionuclides.

Fuel-free verification

Fuel-free verification is when all of the spent fuel has been certified as being removed from the site.

Fragments

‘Fragments’ are considered to be fragments of irradiated fuel, which are up to a few millimetres in diameter.

Ionising radiation

Radiation composed of particles that individually carry enough kinetic energy to liberate an electron from an atom or molecule, ionising it. Ionising radiation is generated through nuclear reactions, either artificial or natural, by very high temperature (for example, plasma discharge or the corona of the Sun), via production of high energy particles in particle accelerators, or due to acceleration of charged particles by the electromagnetic fields produced by natural processes, from lightning to supernova explosions. Additional information on the basic concepts of radiation is available - basic radiation concepts.

Indicator materials

Environmental materials may be sampled for the purpose of indicating trends in environmental performance or likely impacts on the food chain. These include seaweed, soil and grass.

In-growth

Additional activity produced as a result of radioactive decay of parent radionuclides.

Kerma air rate

Air kerma is the quotient of the sum of the kinetic energies of all the charged particles liberated by indirectly ionising particles in a specified mass of air.

Millisievert

The millisievert is a 1/1000 of a sievert. A sievert is one of the International System of Units used for the measurement of dose equivalent.

Non-Nuclear sites

These are other sites that use radioactive materials, such as hospitals, research of industrial facilities

NORM

Naturally occurring radioactive materials that may have been technologically enhanced in some way. The enhancement has occurred when a naturally occurring radioactive material has its composition, concentration, availability, or proximity to people altered by human activity. The term is usually applied when the naturally occurring radionuclide is present in sufficient quantities or concentrations to require control for purposes of radiological protection of the public or the environment.

Nuclear Sites

Shortened form of ‘Nuclear Licensed sites’.

Orphan source

Is a radioactive source which is neither exempted nor under regulatory control. For example, this could be because it has never been under regulatory control or abandoned, lost misplaced, stolen or otherwise transferred without proper approval.

Permits and authorisations

In England and Wales, the term ‘permit’ replaced ‘authorisation’ under the Environmental Permitting Regulations (EPR). In this report ‘permit’ has been used to apply to all sites in England and Wales, irrespective of whether the period considered includes activities prior to EPR coming into force in 2010. In Scotland, the term ‘permit’ replaced ‘authorisation’ under the Environmental Authorisations (Scotland) Regulations 2018 (EASR), irrespective of whether the period includes activities prior to EASR coming into force in 2018. ‘Authorisation’ remains the relevant term for Northern Ireland.

Radiation exposure

Being exposed to radiation from which a dose can be received.

Radiation weighting

Factor used to weight the tissue or organ absorbed dose to take account of the type and quality of the radiation. Example radiation weighting factors: alpha particles = 20; beta particles = 1; photons = 1.

Radioactivity

The emission of alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons and gamma or x-radiation from the transformation of an atomic nucleus.

Radionuclide

An unstable form of an element that undergoes radioactive decay.

Representative person

Representative person is an approach used in the assessment of radiation exposures (‘total dose’) to the public. Direct measurement of doses to the public is not possible under most normal conditions. Instead, doses to the public are estimated using environmental radionuclide concentrations, dose rates and habits data. The estimated doses are compared with dose criteria. In this report, the dose criteria are legal limits for the public. The representative person are usually members of the public who consume large quantities of locally harvested food or spending long periods in locations being assessed for external exposure.

Source-specific dose

An assessment of dose that focuses on specific sources on sites (for example, liquid or gaseous discharges) and their associated pathways (for example, external exposure over shoreline areas). See Section 2, and Appendix 4 for more information on these dose calculations.

In some cases, assessments may include the impacts from multiple sites. For example, the source-specific assessment of the Dumfries and Galloway coast includes the impacts of discharges from Chapelcross and Sellafield.

Tissue weighting factors

Factor used to weight the equivalent dose in a tissue or organ to take account of the different radiosensitivity of each tissue and organ. Example tissue weighting factors: lung = 0.12; bone marrow = 0.12; skin = 0.01.

‘Total dose’

An assessment of dose that takes into account all exposure pathways such as radionuclides in food and the environment and direct radiation.

Appendix 3. Modelling of concentrations of radionuclides in foodstuffs, air, and sewage systems

A3.1. Foodstuffs

At Sellafield and the LLWR, a simple food chain model has been used to provide concentrations of activity in milk and livestock for selected radionuclides to supplement data obtained by direct measurements. This is done where relatively high limits of detection exist or where no measurements were made.

Activities in milk, meat and offal were calculated for technetium-99, ruthenium-106, and plutonium-241 using the equations:

C_m = F_m C_a Q_f and

C_f = F_f C_aQ_f where

C_m is the concentration in milk (Bq l^-1),

C_f is the concentration in meat or offal (Bq kg^-1(fresh)),

F_m is the fraction of the animal’s daily intake by ingestion transferred to milk (d l^-1)

F_f is the fraction of the animal’s daily intake by ingestion transferred to meat or offal (d kg^-1 (fresh)),

C_a is the concentration in fodder (Bq kg^-1 (dry)),

Q_f is the amount of fodder eaten per day (kg (dry) d^-1)

No direct account is taken of radionuclide decay or the intake by the animal of soil associated activity. The concentration in fodder is assumed to be the same as the maximum observed concentration in grass or, in the absence of such data, in leafy green vegetables. The food chain data for the calculations are given in Table A3.1 (Simmonds, Lawson & Mayall 1995; Brenk and others no date) and the estimated concentrations in milk, meat and offal are presented in Table A3.2.

A3.2 Air

For some sites, discharges to air may lead to significant doses. Doses may arise from radionuclides transferred from the plume to food crops and animal products, inhalation of radionuclides in the plume itself and external doses from radionuclides in the plume.

Average annual concentrations of radionuclides in the air at nearest habitations were calculated using a Gaussian plume model, PC-CREAM 08^® (Smith & Simmonds 2009), and the reported discharges of radionuclides to air. Each site assessment uses generic meteorological data based on the vertical mixing and distribution of the plume (Pasquill stability category) shown in Table A3.3. The core modelling assumptions (such as the effective discharge or stack height and distance to habitation) are also shown in Table A3.3. The discharge stack is assumed to be at the centre of the site. For multi-station sites (for example, Sizewell A and B), the gaseous discharges are summed together and assumed to be discharged via a common discharge point (at the centre of both sites).

External radiation doses from radionuclides in the plume and from deposited activity were calculated taking into account occupancy levels indoors and outdoors and location factors to allow for building shielding. During the time people are assumed to be indoors, the standard assumption that the dose from gamma-emitting radionuclides in the plume will be reduced by 80% has been made. Internal radiation doses from inhalation of discharged radionuclides were assessed using breathing rates. Doses were initially assessed for 3 age groups: adults, children (10-year-old), and infants (1-year-old). All ages are assumed to have year-round occupancy at the nearest habitation. The assumptions of the inhalation and occupancy rates assessment are shown in Table A3.4. The dose to the prenatal children age group was taken to be the same as that for an adult.

A3.3 Sewage systems

The facilities at AWE Aldermaston and the Grove Centre, Amersham discharge liquid radioactive waste to local sewers. Wastes are processed at local sewage treatment works (STW). The prolonged proximity to raw sewage and sludge experienced by sewage treatment workers could lead to an increase in the dose received, via a combination of external irradiation from the raw sewage and sludge and the inadvertent ingestion and inhalation of resuspended radionuclides.

An assessment of the dose received by workers at the Maple Lodge STW, near Amersham and the Silchester STW, near Aldermaston has been conducted using the methodology and data given by the Environment Agency (Paul and others 2022a; Paul and others 2022b). The flow rate through the sewage works is used to calculate a mean concentration in raw sewage and sludge of each nuclide discharged. These mean concentrations are combined with habits data concerning the workers’ occupancy near raw sewage and sludge, external and internal dosimetric data, and physical data such as inhalation rates to provide dose estimates. Workers are assumed to spend 75% of a working year in proximity to the raw sewage, and the other 25% in proximity to the sewage sludge. Where liquid discharges are not nuclide-specific, a composition has been assumed based on advice from the operators and concentrations calculated accordingly.

The model parameters and habits data used to assess the dose to sewage treatment workers are given in Table A3.5 and the amounts of radioactivity discharged from each site can be found in Appendix 1 of this report.

Appendix 4. Consumption, inhalation, handling and occupancy rates

This appendix gives the consumption, handling and occupancy rate data used in the source-specific assessment of exposures from consumption of terrestrial foods and aquatic pathways. Consumption rates for terrestrial foods are based on (Byrom and others 1995) and are given in Table A4.1. These are derived from national statistics and are taken to apply at each site. Site-specific data for aquatic pathways based on local surveys are given in Table A4.2. These site-specific data have been supplemented with referenceable generic information (Environment Agency 2002; Smith & Jones 2003) where appropriate. Occupancy over intertidal areas and rates of handling from local surveys has been reassessed to take account of a change in the factor used to determine the range of rates typical of those most exposed. For using the ‘cut-off’ method to define those most exposed (Preston, Mitchell & Jefferies 1974; Hunt, Hewett & Shepherd 1982) a factor of 3.0 is used to describe the ratio of the maximum to the minimum rate within the group. Data used for routine assessments of external and inhalation pathways from gaseous discharges are given in Appendix 3.

Consumption rates refer to the mass of a foodstuff as prepared for consumption (with, for example, stalks or shells removed) and are consistent with the mass quantity used for presentation of concentration data in this report. The term ‘fresh weight’ is used in the data tables of concentrations. For shellfish, the consumption rates and concentrations are for cooked weights. For other foodstuffs, uncooked weights are used.

Appendix 5. Dosimetric data

The dose coefficients used in assessments in this report are provided in Table A5.1 for ease of reference. For adults and postnatal children, they are based on generic data contained in ICRP Publication 119 (International Commission on Radiological Protection 2012). Dose coefficients for prenatal children have been obtained primarily from ICRP 88 (International Commission on Radiological Protection 2001) and NRPB (Health Protection Agency 2008). For a few radionuclides where prenatal dose coefficients are unavailable the relevant adult dose coefficient has been used.

In the case of tritium, polonium, plutonium and americium radionuclides, dose coefficients have been adjusted according to specific research work of relevance to assessments in this report.

A5.1 Polonium

The current ICRP advice is that a gut uptake factor of 0.5 is appropriate for dietary intakes of polonium by adults (International Commission on Radiological Protection 1994). A study involving the consumption of crab meat containing natural concentrations of polonium-210 has suggested that the factor could be as high as 0.8 (Hunt & Allington 1993). More recently, similar experiments with mussels, cockles and crabs suggested a factor in the range 0.15 to 0.65, close to the ICRP value of 0.5 (Hunt & Rumney 2004; Hunt & Rumney 2005; Hunt & Rumney 2007). Previous assessments have considered the effects of a factor of 0.8 for considering monitoring results in RIFE. In view of the most recent review (Hunt & Rumney 2007), a value of 0.5 has been adopted for all food, consistent with ICRP advice.

A5.2 Plutonium and americium

Studies using adult human volunteers have suggested a gut uptake factor of 0.0002 is appropriate for the consumption of plutonium and americium in winkles from near Sellafield (Hunt, Leonard & Lovett 1986; Hunt, Leonard & Lovett 1990). For these and other actinides in food in general, a factor of 0.0005 is considered as a reasonable best estimate (National Radiological Protection Board 1990). These values are to be used if data are not available for the specific circumstances under consideration. In this report, a gut uptake factor of 0.0002 is used for plutonium and americium, for estimating doses to consumers of winkles from Cumbria and this is consistent with UKHSA advice. For other foods and for winkles outside Cumbria, the factor of 0.0005 is used for these radionuclides. This choice is supported by studies of cockle consumption (Hunt 1998).

A5.3 Technetium-99

Volunteer studies have been extended to consider the transfer of technetium-99 in lobsters across the human gut (Hunt, Young & Bonfield 2001). Although values of the gut uptake factor found in this study were lower than the ICRP value of 0.5, dose coefficients are relatively insensitive to changes in the gut uptake factor. This is because the effective dose is dominated by ‘first pass’ dose to the gut (Harrison & Phipps 2001). In this report, we have therefore retained use of the standard ICRP factor and dose coefficient for technetium-99.

A5.4 Tritium

In 2002, UKHSA reviewed the use of dose coefficients for tritium associated with organic material (D. Harrison, Khursheed & E. Lambert 2002). Subsequently, UKHSA published a study of the uptake and retention of organically bound tritium (OBT) in rats fed with fish from Cardiff Bay (Hodgson and others 2005). These experiments suggested that the dose coefficient for OBT in fish from the Severn Estuary near Cardiff should be 6.0 x 10-11 Sv Bq^-1, higher than the standard ICRP value for OBT ingestion. The higher value is used for adults in the assessment of seafood collected in the Bristol Channel in this report, and the standard ICRP value for other assessments. This approach is consistent with advice (Cooper 2008) which takes account of the conclusions reached by the Independent Advisory Group on Ionising Radiation concerning relative biological effectiveness and radiation weighting (Health Protection Agency 2007). Thereafter, results of uptake experiments involving adult volunteers, who ate samples of sole from Cardiff Bay, provided further evidence that this approach is indeed cautious (Hunt, Bailey & Reese 2009).

A5.5 Nuclear data

The nuclear data (half-life, mean beta and gamma energies) have been updated to values presented in ICRP 107 (Endo 2005; Endo, Yamaguchi & Eckerman 2005; Endo & Eckerman 2007; International Commission on Radiological Protection 2008) from ICRP 38 (International Commission on Radiological Protection 1983) data. The nuclear data are primarily used to calculate external dose rates over mud and sand where gamma dose rates are below background or highly variable. The differences in external doses at several sites using ICRP 38 and ICRP 107 were calculated, the differences in dose were less than 5%. The Environment Agency has produced a document that includes radionuclide information, such as the sources, uses, modes of release and nuclear decay data (Environment Agency 2003).

Appendix 6. Estimates of concentrations of natural radionuclides

A6.1. Aquatic foodstuffs

Table A6.1 gives estimated values of concentrations of radionuclides due to natural sources in aquatic foodstuffs. The values are based on sampling and analysis conducted by Cefas (Young, McCubbin & Camplin 2002; Young and others 2003). Data for lead-210 and polonium-210 are quoted as medians with minimum and maximum values, observed in measured samples (Young and others 2002; Young and others 2003), given in brackets. Dose assessments for aquatic foodstuffs are based on concentrations of these radionuclides net of natural background.

The carbon-14 concentrations are adjusted to take account of the dilution of natural atmospheric carbon-14 by the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuel burning. A dilution of 0.28% for each part per million of carbon dioxide added due to fossil fuel burning is used (Graven & Gruber 2011). Values for the carbon dioxide additions are taken each year from: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration carbon dioxide annual mean data (in ppm).

The initial specific activity of carbon-14 was 256Bq kg^-1 (Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food, 1995). In 2025, the adjusted value used as the basis for Table A6.2 was 207Bq kg^-1.

A6.2 Terrestrial foodstuffs

The values of carbon-14 in terrestrial foodstuffs due to natural sources that are used in dose assessments are given in Table A6.2 and based on earlier data (Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food, 1995). The value for the specific activity of carbon-14 in 2025 (given in Section A6.1) was used to derive these estimates.

Appendix 7. Research in support of the monitoring programmes

The environment agencies, FSA and FSS have programmes of special investigations and supporting research and development studies to complement the routine monitoring programmes. This additional work is primarily directed at the following objectives:

• to evaluate the significance of potential sources of radionuclide contamination of the food chain and the environment
• to identify and investigate specific topics or pathways not currently addressed by the routine monitoring programmes and the need for their inclusion in future routine monitoring
• to develop and maintain site-specific habits and agricultural practice data, to ensure that dose assessment calculations reflect the real-world situation
• to develop more sensitive and/or efficient analytical techniques for measurement of radionuclides in natural matrices
• to evaluate the competence of laboratories’ radiochemical analytical techniques for specific radionuclides in food and environmental materials
• to develop improved methods for handling and processing monitoring data

Other studies include projects relating to effects on wildlife, emergency response and planning and development of new environmental models and data.

Information on ongoing and recently completed extramural research is presented in Table A7.1. Those sponsored by the Environment Agency and FSA are also listed on their websites: Environment Agency, and Food Standards Agency, respectively. Copies of the final reports for each of the projects funded by the FSA are available from 11th Floor, 64 Victoria Street, London, SW1E 6QP. Further information on studies funded by SEPA is available by emailing RSEnquiries@sepa.org.uk. Environment Agency reports are available from Environment Agency. A charge may be made to cover costs.

Extramural projects

• Soil and herbage survey, reference SCO00027, SEPA, due Q4, 2025
• Offshore Dose Assessment Model, SEPA, due Q3, 2024
• Thorium Transfer Work, SEPA - the intent is to publish on the SEPA website, in accordance with accessibility requirements, in 2026
• NORM Biota Project, SEPA - the intent is to publish on the SEPA website, in accordance with accessibility requirements, in 2026
• McGuire, C (2023). Radiological Protection of the Public from Radioactive Particles (PhD Thesis). University of Stirling. SEPA. The official completion date of McGuire, C. (2023) is 25^th January 2023. It is now available in the University of Stirling repository McGuire Thesis on University of Stirling thesis repository
• Clyde Estuary Assessment, SEPA, due Q2, 2025
• Soil and herbage follow-up, SEPA, complete Q1, 2024
• Coastal Monitoring, SEPA - the intent is to publish on the SEPA website, in accordance with accessibility requirements, in 2026
• Shetland Background Sampling, SEPA - the intent is to publish on the SEPA website, in accordance with accessibility requirements, in 2026
• SW Scotland Background Sampling, SEPA - the intent is to publish on the SEPA website, in accordance with accessibility requirements, in 2026
• Partitioning Behaviour of Radionuclides in Sewer Systems, Environment Agency, SC250007/R Published 2026
• IRAT2 Transfer Parameters Review, Environment Agency, SC250035/R Published 2026
• Behaviour of Colloids in Radioactive Waste Transfer and Dispersion in Aqueous Environments, Environment Agency, due Q3 2026
• Aerial Monitoring of Environmental Radioactivity, Environment Agency - SC240042/R Published 2026
• Investigation of the fate and behaviour of lutetium-177 in the environment, Environment Agency, Published 2026

In 2025/26, the following reports have been published.

• The Environment Agency Chief Regulators report 2024-25
• Radiological Habits Survey: Barrow 2025
• Radiological Habits Survey: Sellafield Review 2025.
• Radiological Habits Survey: Sizewell 2025

The habits survey reports can be downloaded from Cefas Habits Surveys.

Appendix references

Brenk, H., Onishi, Y., Simmonds, J.R. & Subbaratnam, T., no date, A practical methodology for the assessment of individual and collective radiation doses from radionuclides in the environment, International Atomic Energy Agency.

Byrom, J., Robinson, C.A., Simmonds, J.R., Walters, C.B. & Taylor, R.R., 1995, ‘Food consumption rates for use in generalised radiological dose assessments’, Journal of Radiological Protection, 15(4), 335–342.

Cooper, J.R., 2008, Review of risks from tritium – report of the AGIR – November 2007. Letter dated 17th April 2008, Health Protection Agency, Chilton.

D. Harrison, J., Khursheed, A. & E. Lambert, B., 2002, ‘Uncertainties in Dose Coefficients for Intakes of Tritiated Water and Organically Bound Forms of Tritium by Members of the Public’, Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 98(3), 299–311.

Dick, R., 2012, Personal Communication, Thames Water Utilities Limited, Reading.

Endo, A., 2005, ‘Nuclear Data for Dosimetry Calculations: Suppliment to JAERI 1347’, Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, JAERI, 1347.

Endo, A. & Eckerman, K.F., 2007, ‘Nuclear Data for Dosimetry Calculations: Data for Nuclides with Half-lives less than 10 minutes’, Japan Atomic energy Agency, JAEA-Data/code 220-21.

Endo, A., Yamaguchi, Y. & Eckerman, K.F., 2005, ‘Nuclear Decay Data for Dosimetry Calculations: Revised Data of ICRP Publication 38’, Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, JAERI, 1347.

Environment Agency, 2002, Radioactivity In The Environment. Report for 2001, Environment Agency, Lancaster.

Environment Agency, 2003, Radionuclides handbook. R&D Technical Report P3-101/SP1b, Bristol.

Graven, H.D. & Gruber, N., 2011, ‘Continental-scale enrichment of atmospheric 14CO2 from the nuclear power industry: potential impact on the estimation of fossil fuel-derived CO2’, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 11(23), 12339–12349.

Harrison, J.D. & Phipps, A., 2001, ‘Gut transfer and doses from environmental technetium’, Journal of Radiological Protection, 21(1), 9–11.

Health Protection Agency, 2007, Review of Risks from Tritium, Health Protection Agency, London.

Health Protection Agency, 2008, Guidance on the application of dose coefficients for embryo, fetus and breastfed infant in dose assessments for members of the public: advice from the Health Protection Agency, Health Protection Agency, Chilton.

Hodgson, A., Scott, J.E., Fell, T.P. & Harrison, J.D., 2005, Doses from the consumption of Cardiff Bay flounder containing organically bound tritium. Project SC020042/SR, vol. 25, Environment Agency, Bristol.

Hunt, G. & Rumney, H., 2004, The human gut transfer of environmental polonium-210. Proceedings of the International Conference on widening the radiation protection world, 23 – 28 May 2004, Madrid, International Radiation Protection Association 2004, Fontenay-aux-Roses.

Hunt, G. & Rumney, H., 2005, The human alimentary tract transfer of environmental polonium-210. Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium of the Society for Radiological Protection, 12th-17th June 2005, Cardiff’, Society of Radiological Protection, London.

Hunt, G.J., 1998, ‘Transfer across the human gut of environmental plutonium, americium, cobalt, caesium and technetium: studies with cockles ( Cerastoderma edule ) from the Irish Sea’, Journal of Radiological Protection, 18(2), 101–109.

Hunt, G.J. & Allington, D.J., 1993, ‘Absorption of environmental polonium-210 by the human gut’, Journal of Radiological Protection, 13(2), 119–126.

Hunt, G.J., Hewett, C.J. & Shepherd, J.G., 1982, ‘The identification of critical groups and its application to fish and shellfish consumers in the coastal area of the north-east Irish Sea’, Health Physics, 43(6), 875–899.

Hunt, G.J., Leonard, D.R.P. & Lovett, M.B., 1986, ‘Transfer of environmental plutonium and americium across the human gut’, Science of The Total Environment, 53(1), 89–109.

Hunt, G.J., Leonard, D.R.P. & Lovett, M.B., 1990, ‘Transfer of environmental plutonium and americium across the human gut: A second study’, Science of The Total Environment, 90, 273–282.

Hunt, G.J. & Rumney, H.S., 2007, ‘The human alimentary tract transfer and body retention of environmental polonium-210’, Journal of Radiological Protection, 27(4), 405–426.

Hunt, G.J., Young, A.K. & Bonfield, R.A., 2001, ‘Transfer across the human gut of environmental technetium in lobsters (Homarus gammarus L.) from the Irish Sea’, Journal of Radiological Protection, 21(1), 21–29.

Hunt, J., Bailey, T. & Reese, A., 2009, ‘The human body retention time of environmental organically bound tritium’, Journal of Radiological Protection, 29(1), 23–36.

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