Research and analysis

Errata: corrections to RIFE reports

Updated 30 October 2025

Previous RIFE reports are available on the National Archives.

RIFE 29, 2023

Technical Summary (page 28) (PDF version only)

The paragraph

“The accident at the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power station in Japan in March 2011 resulted in significant quantities of radioactivity being released into the air and sea. Controls on imported food and animal feed products from Japan to the UK mainland were revoked in June 2022, see previous RIFE reports for more details. In Northern Ireland, European Regulations continue to apply under the terms of the UK’s withdrawal agreement from the EU.”

Should read

“The accident at the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power station in Japan in March 2011 resulted in significant quantities of radioactivity being released into the air and sea. Controls on imported food and animal feed products from Japan to the UK mainland were revoked in June 2022, see previous RIFE reports for more details. In Northern Ireland, European Regulations continued to apply under the terms of the UK’s withdrawal agreement from the EU, until July 2023, when these regulations were repealed by the EU.”

This has been amended in the HTML version only.

Section 8.8 (Page 300) (PDF version only)

The paragraph

“In Northern Ireland, European Regulations continue to apply under the terms of the UK’s withdrawal agreement from the EU. In September 2021, the EU published Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/1533 [229] which replaced Regulation 2016/6 in the EU. The EU retained enhanced controls on any food where there is a single instance of exceeding the maximum level of 100Bq kg-1, or similar. As a result, some controls will remain in place for food imported into the EU and Northern Ireland. The list of foods covered by the enhanced controls in the EU regulations is now very limited and includes wild mushrooms, foraged foods, and some species of fish.”

Should read

“In Northern Ireland, European Regulations continued to apply under the terms of the UK’s withdrawal agreement from the EU, under Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/1533 [229], until 13 July 2023, when these regulations were repealed by the EU (under 2023/1453).”

This has been amended in the HTML version only.

General Summary (HTML) and Section 3 Highlights (PDF, page 84)

The general highlight for Nuclear fuel and reprocessing.

“‘Total doses’ for the representative person were 23% (or less) of the annual dose limit for all assessed sites. ‘Total doses’ decreased to the Cumbrian coastal community near Sellafield, compared to the values in 2022, but remained well below the legal limit.”

Should read

“‘Total doses’ for the representative person were 23% (or less) of the annual dose limit for all assessed sites/locations. ‘Total doses’ decreased to the Cumbrian coastal community near Sellafield, compared to the values in 2022, but remained well below the legal limit.”

The first 2 highlights for Sellafield, Cumbria

“‘Total doses’ for the representative person were 0.23mSv (or less) and decreased in 2023.

The highest ‘total doses’ were from seafood, dominated by the effects of naturally occurring radionuclides. Historical discharges from the Sellafield site made a lesser contribution.”

Should read

“‘total doses’ for the Cumbrian coastal community were 0.23mSv (or less) and decreased in 2023, the highest ‘total doses’ were from seafood, dominated by the effects of naturally occurring radionuclides”

The highlight

“Radiation dose from historical discharges of naturally occurring radionuclides (non-nuclear industry) was lower in 2023. The contribution to ‘total dose’ from Sellafield discharges increased in 2023.”

Is incorrect, and should read

“Radiation dose from historical discharges of naturally occurring radionuclides (non-nuclear industry) was lower in 2023.”

Section 3 introduction (HTML and PDF, page 85)

The last sentence of the paragraph beginning with “Windscale was historically…”

“Regular monitoring of the environment by the Environment Agency and FSA in relation to any legacy releases from Windscale is conducted as part of the overall programme for the Sellafield site.”

Should read

“Regular monitoring of the environment by the Environment Agency and FSA in relation to any legacy releases from Windscale is conducted as part of the overall programme for the Cumbrian Coastal area”

Sections 3.3 and 3.3.1 (HTML and PDF, pages 94 to 106)

These sections have been renamed and re-structured as presented below.

3.3 The Cumbrian Coastal area, including Sellafield

This section considers both historic and present activities in the Cumbrian Coastal area that have led to discharges of radioactive waste. The historic and current discharges impact upon the same area, therefore this section considers all sources together and presents a dose to the Cumbrian Coastal Community, a separate assessment for the Sellafield site only is also presented.

The area is impacted by several historic and present sources of radioactivity, these are:

• naturally occurring radionuclides from the former phosphate reprocessing plant near Whitehaven
• artificial radioactivity from both historic and current discharges from Sellafield to both the marine and terrestrial environments
• liquid discharges from the Low Level Waste Repository, near Drigg

An important source of naturally occurring radionuclides in the marine environment has been the phosphate processing plant near Whitehaven in Cumbria. Although the plant closed in 1992, the effects of these past operations continue due to the decay products of the long-lived parent radionuclides discharges to sea. Naturally occurring radionuclides from this (non-nuclear) industrial activity are also monitored and assessed (see Section 7.5). The discharge effects from the Sellafield site and the former phosphate works both influence the same area and therefore the contributions to doses from both sources are considered in Section 3.3.1.

Sellafield Limited is responsible for the operation of the Sellafield site and is a wholly owned subsidiary of the NDA. In 2023, the main operations on the Sellafield site were:

• post-operational clean out at the Magnox reprocessing facility
• the decommissioning and clean-up of redundant nuclear facilities
• waste treatment and storage

The site contains the Calder Hall nuclear power station which ceased generating power in 2003 and is undergoing decommissioning.

Nuclear fuel reprocessing at the Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant (THORP) ceased in 2018, resulting in reduced gaseous and liquid discharges in the intervening period. THORP will continue to serve the UK until the 2070’s as a storage facility for spent AGR fuel. In July 2022, the Magnox reprocessing facility took its final feed of spent nuclear fuel marking the end of 58 years of Magnox reprocessing. The facility will now enter the post-operational clean-out phase.

The environmental permit for receipt and disposal of radioactive waste was revised and re-issued to the site operator in October 2023 [151]. Further details of the revised permit can be found in previous RIFE reports (for example, [67]). The changes to the environmental permit include:

• registration of the Magnox Swarf Storage Silo (MSSS) retrievals ventilation system (RVS)
• registration of an Outfall X to discharge construction related aqueous waste arisings (non-sewage trade waste) to the River Calder via surface water drainage.
• the removal of the Gaseous Annual Site Limits for Krypton-85 & Antimony-125 following the completion of Magnox reprocessing in July 2022.
• a reduction to the Radium-226 limit and update to the site plan due to Sellafield Ltd.’s application to extend the Calder Landfill Extension Segregated Area (CLESA) into an adjacent ‘valley area’. Please note that there are no required changes to the site’s Radioactive Substances Activities (RSA) environmental permit site boundary.

With the completion of Magnox reprocessing in July 2022 (and a period of post-operational clean out), the gaseous and liquid discharge limits relating to this waste stream have reverted to the lower discharge limits as described in the permit documentation [152,153]. The remaining gaseous limits are upper limits, which are in force until the active commissioning of HEPA filtration in the MSSS stack as detailed in the footnotes of Table A1.1.

The gaseous discharge limits presented in Table A1.1 for strontium-90, caesium-137, plutonium-alpha and americium-241 and curium-242 are the upper limits, which are in force until the active commissioning of High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filtration in the MSSS stack as detailed in the footnotes of Table A1.1. All of the lower liquid limits are in force after completion of Magnox reprocessing (Table A1.2).

Sellafield Limited continued retrievals of sludge from legacy pond facilities in 2023 and continues to prepare for retrievals of intermediate level waste from legacy facilities to reduce environmental risk. Some of these projects have the potential to impact on discharges to the environment.

A full habits survey is conducted every 5 years in the vicinity of the Sellafield site, which investigates the exposure pathways relating to liquid and gaseous discharges, and to direct radiation. Annual review surveys are also undertaken between these full habits surveys. These annual surveys investigate the pathways relating to liquid discharges, review high-rate fish and shellfish consumption by local people (part of the Cumbrian Coastal Community group) and review their intertidal occupancy rates. The most recent full Sellafield habits survey was conducted in 2023 [154]. A full survey around the LLWR near Drigg was also performed in 2023 [155]. In 2023, some changes were found in the amounts (and mixes) of seafood species consumed and intertidal occupancy rates [156]. Revised figures for consumption rates, together with occupancy rates, are provided in Appendix 4 (Table A4.2). Further afield, the most recent habits surveys were conducted to determine the consumption and occupancy rates by members of the public on the Dumfries and Galloway coast in 2017 [157] and around Barrow and the south-west Cumbrian coast in 2012 [158]. The results of these surveys are used to determine the potential exposure pathways, related to liquid discharges from Sellafield in Cumbria.

Habits surveys to obtain data on activities undertaken on beaches relating to potential public exposure to radioactive particles in the vicinity of the Sellafield nuclear licensed site were undertaken in 2007 and 2009 [159,160].

Monitoring of the environment and food around Sellafield reflects the historical and present-day Sellafield site and Whitehaven activities. In view of the importance of this monitoring and the assessment of public radiation exposures, the components of the programme are considered here in depth. The discussion is provided in 4 sub-sections, relating to the assessment of dose, the effects of gaseous discharges, the effects of liquid discharges and unusual pathways of exposure identified around the site.

3.3.1 Doses to the Cumbrian coastal community

The doses calculated in this section cover a wide area and consider the inputs from several sites/sources, from both the nuclear and non-nuclear sectors. These sources are:

• naturally occurring radionuclides from the former phosphate works in Whitehaven
• artificial radioactivity from both historical and current discharges from Sellafield to both the marine and terrestrial environments
• to a lesser extent, liquid discharges from the LLWR near Drigg

Liquid discharges from Wylfa, Chapelcross, Barrow and Heysham also have a very small impact on doses but are not considered in this report. Source-specific assessments are also performed for the far-field effects of Sellafield discharges.

Total dose’ from all pathways and sources to the Cumbrian coastal community

The annual ‘total dose’ from all pathways and sources of radiation is assessed using consumption and occupancy data from the full habits survey of 2023 [161] and the yearly review of shellfish and fish consumption, and intertidal occupancy in 2022 [156]. Calculations are performed for 4 age groups (adults, 10-year-old children, 1-year-old infants and prenatal children). The effects on high-rate consumers of fish and shellfish from historical discharges of naturally occurring radionuclides from non-nuclear industrial activity from the former phosphate works near Whitehaven (see Section 7.5) are included to determine their contribution to the annual ‘total dose’. These works were demolished in 2004 and the authorisation to discharge radioactive wastes was revoked. The increase in concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides (due to TENORM) from historical discharges is difficult to determine above a variable background (see Appendix 6). This assessment also includes contributions from both current and legacy historical discharges from the Sellafield (and to a lesser extent, those from the LLWR near Drigg) site and sources of direct radiation from the LLWR near Drigg site.

In 2023, the highest ‘total dose’ to the Cumbrian coastal community^{[footnote 1]}, near Sellafield, was assessed to have been 0.23mSv (Table 3.16), or 23% of the dose limit to members of the public. This is a decrease from 0.24mSv in 2022. This dose includes a minor contribution from sources of direct radiation on the LLWR site near Drigg (included as a result of the 2023 LLWR habits survey [155]). As in previous years, the majority of this dose (approximately 92%) was due to radioactivity from historical discharges of naturally occurring radionuclides from the former phosphate works and not from Sellafield discharges. The representative person was an adult consuming crustacean shellfish at high rates who also consumed significant quantities of other seafood (fish) and unchanged from 2022. The decrease in ‘total dose’ in 2023 was mostly attributed to the revision of habits information particularly the reduced consumption rate of both fish and crustacean species. Polonium-210 (and lead-210) are important radionuclides as small changes in concentrations above the natural background of these radionuclides, significantly influence the dose contribution from these radionuclides (due to a relatively high dose coefficient used to convert an intake of radioactivity into a radiation dose) and therefore the value of the estimated dose.

The most significant pathway contributors to the ‘total dose’ in 2023 were from crustacean consumption (93%), direct radiation (from the LLWR site) (5%), fish consumption (2%) and other pathways (1%). The listed food groups are consumption pathways, the other pathways include external exposure over sediment and saltmarsh. The most important radionuclide was polonium-210 (91%) with transuranic radionuclides (including plutonium-239+240 and americium-241) contributing less than 2% of the dose.

The dose in 2023 from historical discharges of naturally occurring radionuclides artificial radionuclides discharged (both historical and current) by Sellafield (including external radiation) contributed 0.21mSv and 0.019mSv, respectively^{[footnote 2]}. In 2022, the contributions were 0.22mSv and 0.014mSv, respectively. In 2023, the contribution from external radiation was 0.001mSv (0.002mSv in 2022). Data for naturally occurring radionuclides in fish and shellfish, and their variation in recent years, are discussed in Section 7.5.

The contribution to the ‘total dose’ of 0.21mSv in 2023 from naturally occurring radionuclides (from past non-nuclear industrial activity) was lower in comparison to that in 2022 (0.22mSv). In 2023, the most contributing radionuclide was polonium-210 (~99%). The decrease in ‘total dose’ in 2023 was mostly attributed to the revision of habits information particularly the reduced consumption rate of both fish and crustacean species. In 2022, polonium-210 concentrations (above expected background) in locally caught lobsters contributed 0.19mSv to the ‘total dose’. Polonium-210 concentrations (above expected natural background) in fish samples contributed 0.001mSv to the ‘total dose’ in 2023.

The contribution to the ‘total dose’ of 0.019mSv in 2023 from artificial radionuclides (including external radiation). The contributing radionuclides in 2023 were mostly iodine-129 (15%), americium-241 (15%) and plutonium radionuclides (3%). External exposure contributed 61% of the ‘total dose’ from artificial radionuclides .

Direct radiation from the LLWR site (0.033mSv, Table 1.1) in 2023 was considered in this ‘total dose’ assessments, but made a minor contribution (approximately 5%) to the highest ‘total dose’ (at LLWR).

Contributions to the highest annual ‘total dose’ each year (2012 to 2023), from all pathways and sources by specific radionuclides, are given in Figure 3.6. Inter-annual variations were more complex and governed by both natural variability in seafood concentrations and real changes in the consumption and occupancy characteristics of the local population. Over a longer period, the trend is of generally declining dose (Figure 2.6, [46]).

Figure 3.6. Contributions to ‘total dose’ from all sources at Sellafield, 2012 to 2023. (The highest ‘total dose’ in 2013 due to Sellafield discharges was to people living on houseboats near Barrow in Cumbria).

The largest proportion of the ‘total dose’, from 2014 to 2020, was due to enhanced naturally occurring radionuclides (from past non-nuclear industrial activity) and a smaller contribution from the historical discharges from Sellafield. In 2013, the highest ‘total dose’ (relating to the effects of Sellafield) was entirely due to external radiation from sediments. The change was due to both decreases in polonium-210 (a naturally occurring radionuclide from past non-nuclear industrial activity at the former phosphate processing plant near Whitehaven) and a revision of habits information, resulting in a change in the representative person. In the following year (2014), the increase in ‘total dose’ was due to a change in the habits information from the most recent survey. Thereafter, the relative changes in dose were largely due to variations in polonium-210 concentrations in locally caught lobsters and crabs.

The contributions, from all pathways and sources, to the highest annual ‘total dose’ from the non-nuclear and nuclear industries, and, for adults only, from each pathway of exposure, are also given in Figure 3.7 (2012 to 2023) and Figure 3.8 (2019 to 2023), respectively. The overall trend from the nuclear industry is a generally declining dose (Figure 3.7), broadly reflecting a general reduction in concentrations in seafood of artificial radionuclides from the nuclear industry, over the period 2012 to 2023. The pathways of exposure contributing the highest dose were consumption of mollusc, crustacean and sea fish.

Figure 3.7. Contributions from nuclear and non-nuclear industries to ‘total dose’ from all sources at Sellafield, 2012 to 2023. (The highest ‘total dose’ in 2013 due to Sellafield discharges was to people living on houseboats near Barrow in Cumbria).

Figure 3.8. Contributions from each pathway of exposure to the ‘total dose’ from all sources, 2019 to 2023.

Other age groups received less exposure than the adults ‘total dose’ of 0.23mSv in 2023 (10-year-old children: 0.13mSv; 1-year-old infants: 0.088mSv; prenatal children: 0.037mSv). ‘Total doses’ estimated for each age group may be compared with the dose for each person of approximately 2.3mSv to members of the UK population from exposure to natural radiation in the environment [1] and to the annual dose limit to members of the public of 1mSv.

‘Total dose’ from all pathways and sources in the vicinity of the Sellafield site

The annual ‘total dose’ from all pathways and sources of radiation is assessed using consumption and occupancy data from the full habits survey of 2023 [161] and the yearly review of shellfish and fish consumption, and intertidal occupancy in 2022 [156]. Calculations are performed for 4 age groups (adults, 10-year-old children, 1-year-old infants and prenatal children). The effects on high-rate consumers of fish and shellfish from historical discharges of naturally occurring radionuclides from non-nuclear industrial activity from the former phosphate works near Whitehaven (see Section 7.5) are included to determine their contribution to the annual ‘total dose’. These works were demolished in 2004 and the authorisation to discharge radioactive wastes was revoked. The increase in concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides (due to TENORM) from historical discharges is difficult to determine above a variable background (see Appendix 6). This assessment also includes contributions from both current and legacy discharges from the Sellafield (and to a lesser extent, those from the LLWR near Drigg) site and sources of direct radiation from the Sellafield site.

The highest total dose for a local high-rate seafood consumer was assessed to have been 0.22 mSv in 2023,or approximately 22 per cent of the dose limit to members of the public (Table 3.16). The representative person was an adult consuming crustacean shellfish at high rates who also consumed significant quantities of other seafood (fish). Polonium-210 (and lead-210) are important radionuclides as small changes in concentrations above the natural background of these radionuclides, significantly influence the dose contribution from these radionuclides (due to a relatively high dose coefficient used to convert an intake of radioactivity into a radiation dose) and therefore the value of the estimated dose.

The most significant pathway contributors to the ‘total dose’ in the Cumbrian Coastal Area, 2023 were from crustacean consumption (98%), fish consumption (2%) and other pathways (<1%). The listed food groups are consumption pathways, the other pathways include external exposure over sediment. The most important radionuclide was polonium-210 (95%) with transuranic radionuclides (including plutonium-239+240 and americium-241) contributing less than 2% of the dose.

The dose in 2023 from historical discharges of naturally occurring radionuclides and from artificial radionuclides discharged by Sellafield (including external radiation) contributed 0.21mSv and 0.008mSv, respectively. In 2023, the contribution from external radiation was 0.001mSv (0.002mSv in 2022). Data for naturally occurring radionuclides in fish and shellfish, and their variation in recent years, are discussed in Section 7.5.

The contribution to the ‘total dose’ of 0.008mSv in 2023 from artificial radionuclides (including external radiation) was lower, in comparison to that in 2022. The decrease in the contribution to the ‘total dose’ from 2023 was mostly attributed the update of habits information, in particular the reduction in consumption rates of fish and crustacean species. The contributing radionuclides in 2023 were mostly iodine-129 (35%), americium-241 (35%), plutonium radionuclides (6%) and other radionuclides (including carbon-14, caesium-137) (13%). External exposure contributed 11% of the ‘total dose’ from artificial radionuclides (20% in 2022).

Direct radiation from the Sellafield (0.004mSv, Table 1.1) in 2023 was considered in the ‘total dose’ assessments, but this made an insignificant contribution to the highest ‘total dose’ in the Cumbrian Coastal Area.

Other age groups received less exposure than the adults ‘total dose’ of 0.22mSv in 2023 (10-year-old children: 0.12mSv; 1-year-old infants: 0.077mSv; prenatal children: 0.028mSv). ‘Total doses’ estimated for each age group may be compared with the dose for each person of approximately 2.3mSv to members of the UK population from exposure to natural radiation in the environment [1] and to the annual dose limit to members of the public of 1mSv.

‘Total dose’ from gaseous discharges and direct radiation in the vicinity of the Sellafield site

In 2023, the dose to the representative person receiving the highest ‘total dose’, which includes contributions from artificial and naturally occurring radionuclides, from the pathways predominantly relating to gaseous discharges and sources of direct radiation was 0.043mSv (Table 1.16). This is an increase from 0.011mSv in 2022 (as amended in the RIFE 28 errata). The most exposed age group in 2023 was an adult who consumed freshwater fish, who also consumed sea fish and spent time over intertidal substrates and a change from 2022. The profile selection is based upon the terrestrial pathways, after selection all pathways are re-included in the assessment (see Section 1.2.2). The increase in the ‘total dose’ and change in representative person was due to the revision of habits information. The most significant contributors in 2023 to the ‘total dose’ for adults were from external exposure over sediments (41%), consumption of sea water fish (39%), consumption of root vegetables (8%), and occupancy for direct radiation (9%). The most important radionuclides were iodine-129 (in seafood, 13%, based on the limit of detection), polonium-210 (in seafood, 9%), lead-210 (in seafood, 12%), americium-241 (7%, predominantly reported at limit of detection in root vegetables), carbon-14 (3%) and strontium-90 (<1%). External exposure contributed 0.020mSv (50%). Other age groups received lower exposure than the ‘total dose’ for adults of 0.043mSv (10-year-old children: 0.023mSv, 1-year-old infants: 0.012mSv and prenatal children: 0.028mSv).

Contributions to the highest annual ‘total dose’, from pathways relating to gaseous discharge and direct radiation sources and by specific radionuclides, are given in Figure 3.9 over the period 2012 to 2023. These profiles are selected as described in section 1.2.2. and include all pathways. Over a longer period, the trend is of declining dose (Figure 2.9, [46]) due to a general reduction in concentrations of radionuclides in food and the environment caused, in part, by reductions in discharges in this period. Over the period 2012 to 2019, ‘total doses’ were generally similar between years. The lower ‘total dose’ values after 2014 were mostly due to changes in the monitoring programme [162]. In 2018, the decrease in ‘total dose’ was mostly attributed to the revision of habits information following the full habits survey undertaken that year. From 2020, the relative changes in dose were largely due to variations in americium-241 concentrations (at limits of detection) in root vegetables. The increase in 2023, is due to the revision of the habits data and the majority of the dose (~80%) comes from aquatic pathways.

Figure 3.9. Contributions to ‘total dose’ from pathways relating to gaseous discharge and direct radiation sources at Sellafield, 2012 to 2023 (+ based on limits of detection for concentrations in foods).

‘Total dose’ from liquid discharges

The people receiving the highest ‘total dose’ from the pathways predominantly relating to liquid discharges are given in Table 3.16. Each ‘total dose’ is the same as that giving their maximum ‘total dose’ for all sources and pathways.

Source specific doses

Important source specific assessments of exposures, as a result of radioactive waste discharges from Sellafield, continued to be due to high-rate consumption of seafood and external exposure from gamma rays over long periods. Other pathways were kept under review, particularly the potential for sea to land transfer at the Ravenglass Estuary to the south of the site, exposure from contact with beta-emitting radionuclides during handling of sediments and/or handling of fishing gear and from gaseous discharges, the high-rate consumption of locally grown food.

Doses from terrestrial food consumption

In 2023, infants (1-year-old) consuming milk at high rates and exposed to external and inhalation pathways from gaseous discharges received the highest dose for all ages. The estimated dose was 0.012mSv in 2023 (Table 3.16), or approximately 1% of the dose limit to members of the public and up from 0.011mSv in 2022 (as corrected in the RIFE 28 errata). Other age groups received less exposure than the infants (1-year-old) dose of 0.010mSv in 2022 (adults: 0.010mSv; 10-year-old children: 0.009mSv; prenatal children: 0.005mSv).

Doses from seafood consumption

Two sets of habits data are used in these dose assessments. One is based on the habits information seen in the area each year (2023 habits survey). The second is based on a five-year rolling average using habits data gathered from 2019 to 2023. Some changes were found in the amounts (and mixes) of species consumed compared to those in the 2023 and the 2019 to 2023 rolling average. For crustaceans (crab, lobster, and other crustaceans), the total consumption rate decreased in 2023, and in the 2019 to 2023 rolling average. For fish (cod, other fish), the total consumption rate decreased in 2023 and in the 2019 to 2023 rolling average. For molluscs (winkles and other molluscs), the total consumption rates decreased in 2023 and in the 2018 to 2023 rolling average. The occupancy rate over sediments increased in the 2023 habits information and increased in the 2019 to 2023 rolling average. The revised habits data are given in Appendix 4 (Table A4.2).

Aquatic pathway habits are normally the most important in terms of dose near Sellafield and are surveyed every year (for example [156]). This allows generation of a unique yearly set of data and also rolling five-year averages. The rolling averages are intended to smooth the effects of sudden changes in habits and provide an assessment of dose that follows more closely changes in radioactivity concentrations in food and the environment. These are used for the main assessment of doses from liquid discharges and follow the recommendations of the report of the consultative exercise on dose assessments (CEDA) [139].

Table 3.16 summarises source specific doses to seafood consumers in 2023. The doses from artificial radionuclides to people who consume a large amount of seafood were 0.027mSv (0.027mSv in 2022) and 0.039mSv (0.045mSv in 2022) using the annual and five-year rolling average habits data, respectively. These doses each include a contribution due to external radiation exposure over sediments.

The dose to a local person (high-rate consumer of seafood), due to the enhancement of concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides resulting from discharges from the former phosphate works near Whitehaven (using maximising assumptions for the dose coefficients and the five-year rolling average habits data), is estimated to have been 0.32mSv in 2023 and down from 0.33mSv in 2022. Most of this was due to polonium-210 (98%). For comparison (with the assessment using the five-year rolling average habits data), the dose from the single-year assessment for the Cumbrian coastal community seafood consumer from naturally occurring radionuclides (based on consumption rates and habits survey data in 2023) was 0.21mSv (Table 3.16).

Taking artificial and enhanced natural radionuclides together, the source specific doses were 0.24mSv and 0.36mSv for the annual and five-year rolling average habits data, respectively. These estimates are slightly higher or similar than the estimate of ‘total dose’ from all sources of 0.23mSv. The main reason for this is a difference in the approach to selecting consumption rates for seafood for the representative person. The differences in dose are expected and are within the uncertainties in the assessments (see Section 2.13).

Exposures typical of the wider communities associated with fisheries in Whitehaven, Dumfries and Galloway, the Morecambe Bay area, Northern Ireland and North Wales have been kept under review in 2023 (Table 3.15). Those for fisheries in the Isle of Man and Fleetwood have been shown to be generally lower and dose data are available in earlier RIFE reports (for example [62]). Where appropriate, the dose from consumption of seafood is summed with a contribution from external exposure over intertidal areas. The doses received in the wider communities were significantly lower than for the Cumbrian coastal community because of the lower concentrations and dose rates further afield. There were generally small changes in the doses (and contribution to doses) in each area in 2023 (Table 3.15), in comparison to those in 2022. For example, on the Dumfries and Galloway coast, the decrease in dose, in 2023, to 0.021mSv (from 0.024mSv in 2022) was mostly due lower gamma dose rates measured over different substrates. All annual doses of the wider communities were well within the dose limit for members of the public of 1mSv.

The dose to a person, who typically consumes 15kg of fish per year from landings at Whitehaven is also given in Table 3.16. This dose was less than 0.005mSv in 2023. The consumption rate used represents an average for a typical consumer of seafood from the north-east Irish Sea.

Doses from sediments

The main radiation exposure pathway associated with sediments is due to external dose from gamma-emitting radionuclides adsorbed on intertidal sediments in areas frequented by the public. This dose can make a significant contribution to the total exposure of members of the public in coastal communities of the north-east Irish Sea but particularly in Cumbria and Lancashire. Gamma dose rates currently observed in intertidal areas are mainly due to radiocaesium and naturally occurring radionuclides. For some people, the following pathways may also contribute to doses from sediments: exposure due to beta-emitting radionuclides during handling of sediments or fishing gear; inhalation of re-suspended beach sediments; and inadvertent ingestion of beach sediments. These pathways are considered later. In the main, they give rise to only minor doses compared with those due to external gamma-emitters.

Gamma radiation dose rates over areas of the Cumbrian coast and further afield in 2023 are given in Table 2.9. The results of the assessment of external exposure pathways are included in Table 3.16. The highest whole-body exposures due to external radiation resulting from Sellafield discharges, past and present, was received by a local houseboat dweller at Barrow, Cumbria. In 2023, the dose was 0.040mSv, or approximately 4% of the dose limit, and up from 0.029mSv in 2022 (see Section 6.2). Other people received lower external doses in 2023. The dose to a person who spends a long time over the marsh in the Ravenglass Estuary was 0.013mSv in 2023, and a decrease from that in 2022 (0.015mSv, as amended in the RIFE 28 errata). This decrease in dose was due to lower occupancy over salt marsh (Appendix 4, Table A4.2).

The doses to people in 2023 were also estimated for several other activities. Assessments were undertaken for a typical resident using local beaches for recreational purposes at 300 hours per year, and for a typical tourist visiting the coast of Cumbria with a beach occupancy of 30 hours per year. The exposure to residents was assessed for 2 different environments (at several locations) and at a distance from the Sellafield influence. The 2 different environments are 1) residents that visit and use beaches, and 2) residents that visit local muddy areas or salt marsh. Typical occupancy rates [159,160] are assumed and appropriate gamma dose rates have been used from Table 2.9. The activities for the typical tourist include consumption of local seafood and occupancy on beaches. Concentrations of radioactivity in fish and shellfish have been used from Table 2.5 to Table 2.7, and appropriate gamma dose rates used from Table 2.9. The consumption and occupancy rates for activities of a typical resident and tourist are provided in Appendix 4 (Table A4.2).

In 2023, the doses to people from recreational use of beaches varied from less than 0.005 to 0.009mSv (Table 3.16), with the higher doses being closer to the Sellafield source. The doses for recreational use of salt marsh and muddy areas had a similar variation, from less than 0.005 to 0.008mSv. The values for these activities were similar to those in recent years. The annual dose to a typical tourist visiting the coast of Cumbria, including a contribution from external exposure, was estimated to be less than 0.005mSv.

Doses from handling fishing gear and sediment

Exposures can also arise from contact with beta-emitting radionuclides during handling of sediments, or fishing gear on which fine particulates have become trapped. Habits surveys keep under review the amounts of time spent by fishermen handling their fishing gear, and by bait diggers and shellfish collectors handling sediment. For those most exposed, the rates for handling nets and pots and for handling sediments are provided in Appendix 4 (Table A4.2). In 2023, the skin doses to a bait digger and shellfish collector from handling sediment was 0.074mSv (Table 3.16). This was less than 0.5% of the appropriate annual dose limit of 50mSv specifically for skin. The skin dose to a fisherman from handling fishing gear (including a component due to naturally occurring radiation), based on 2019 monitoring data was 0.14mSv. Therefore, both handling of fishing gear and sediments continued to be minor pathways of radiation exposure.

Doses from atmospheric sea to land transfer

At Ravenglass, the representative person was infants (1-year-old) from consuming terrestrial foods that were potentially affected by radionuclides transported to land by sea spray. In 2023, the dose (including contributions from Chernobyl and fallout from nuclear weapons testing) was estimated to be 0.013mSv, which was approximately 1% of the dose limit for members of the public, and up from 0.011mSv in 2022 (as amended in the RIFE 28 errata). The increase in dose is attributed to higher carbon-14 concentrations in milk, and to a lesser extent domestic fruit, in 2023. The largest contribution to the dose was from ruthenium-106 in milk, as in recent years. As in previous years, sea-to-land transfer was not of radiological importance in the Ravenglass area.

Doses from seaweed and sea-washed pasture

Estimated annual doses for a high-rate consumer of laverbread (brown seaweed), and a high-rate consumer of vegetables (assuming these foods were obtained from the monitored plots near Sellafield and seaweeds were used as fertilisers and/or soil conditioners), are available in earlier RIFE reports (for example [62]). It has been previously established that the exposure pathway for a high-rate consumer of laverbread is of low radiological significance. No harvesting of Porphyra in west Cumbria, for consumption in the form of laverbread, was reported in the 2023 habits survey [161] having been reported in the 2018 survey- this exposure pathway has remained dormant in previous years. Previously reported doses from the consumption of vegetables using seaweed (as a fertiliser) have remained similar (and low) from year to year, with only minor variations in exposure (due to different foods being grown and sampled from the monitored plots). Exposures of vegetable consumers using seaweed from further afield in Northern Ireland, Scotland and North Wales are expected to be much lower than near Sellafield.

Animals may also graze on seaweeds on beaches in coastal areas. However, there has been no evidence of this taking place significantly near Sellafield. A research study (relevant to the Scottish islands and coastal communities) conducted by UKHSA on behalf of the FSA and SEPA, investigated the potential transfer of radionuclides from seaweed to meat products and also to crops grown on land where seaweed had been applied as a soil conditioner [163]. The study concluded that the highest levels of dose to people using seaweed, as a soil conditioner or an animal feed, were in the range of a few microSieverts (µSv) and most of the doses are at least a factor of 100 lower. The report is available on SEPA’s website: http://www.sepa.org.uk/environment/radioactive-substances/environmental-monitoring-and-assessment/reports/.

Section 3.3.3, Monitoring of dose rates

The sentence (last paragraph of section)

“Over the last 4 decades, concentrations of radioactivity in the environment around Sellafield have declined as a result of reduced discharges.”

Should read

“Over the last 4 decades, concentrations of radioactivity in the Cumbrian coastal area have declined as a result of reduced discharges.”

Section 3.3.3, Monitoring of sea to land transfer

The paragraph

“Terrestrial foodstuffs are monitored near Ravenglass to check on the extent of transfer of radionuclides from sea to land in this area. In 2023, samples of milk and livestock were collected and analysed, for radionuclides which were released in liquid effluent discharges from Sellafield. Results from surveys for activity concentrations in crops, fruit and environmental indicators are available in earlier RIFE reports (for example, (Environment Agency, Food Standards Agency, Natural Resources Wales and others, 2014)).

The results of measurements in 2023 are given in Table 3.12. Generally, the activity concentrations, where positively detected, show lower concentrations than were found in the immediate vicinity of Sellafield (Table 3.4). As in previous years, the evidence for sea to land transfer was very limited in 2023. Technetium-99 concentrations are reported as less than values (or close to the less than value). Small concentrations of artificial nuclides were detected in some samples, but the concentrations were very low. As in recent years, where detectable, observed isotopic ratios of plutonium-238 to plutonium-239+240 concentrations were somewhat higher than 0.025, a ratio which might be expected if the source was entirely due to fallout from nuclear weapons testing. This may suggest a Sellafield influence.”

Should read

“Terrestrial foodstuffs are monitored near Ravenglass to check on the extent of transfer of radionuclides from sea to land in this area. In 2023, samples of milk and livestock were collected and analysed, for radionuclides which were released in liquid effluent discharges (both historical and current) from Sellafield. Results from surveys for activity concentrations in crops, fruit and environmental indicators are available in earlier RIFE reports (for example, (Environment Agency, Food Standards Agency, Natural Resources Wales and others, 2014)).

The results of measurements in 2023 are given in Table 3.12. Generally, the activity concentrations, where positively detected, show lower concentrations than were found in the immediate vicinity of Sellafield (Table 3.4). As in previous years, the evidence for sea to land transfer was very limited in 2023. Technetium-99 concentrations are reported as less than values (or close to the less than value). Small concentrations of artificial nuclides were detected in some samples, but the concentrations were very low. As in recent years, where detectable, observed isotopic ratios of plutonium-238 to plutonium-239+240 concentrations were somewhat higher than 0.025, a ratio which might be expected if the source was entirely due to fallout from nuclear weapons testing. This may suggest a historical Sellafield influence.”

These changes also apply to relevant tables and figures.

Section 4.2.6 (page 194)

The habits profiles for the Wylfa ‘total dose’ were incorrectly generated and revised versions have been published (see Revised Wylfa 2023 Habits report). There was no change in the published ‘total dose’, however the 2023 dose assessment spreadsheet for Wylfa is incorrect. The corrected habits profiles are presented in the 2024 dose assessment spreadsheet.

Section 7.1 (page 271) and Table A1.3 (page 255)

The site operator has re-evaluated the calculations for the cumulative (to financial year end) total disposed waste (m³) for financial years 2015/16 to 2023/24. These data are presented in Table A1.3 in RIFE 30.

The sentence

“A total of 624m³ of waste was received by the site with the intention of disposal in financial year 2023/24, bringing the cumulative total to 254,000m³.”

Should read

“A total of 624m³ of waste was received by the site with the intention of disposal in financial year 2023/24, bringing the cumulative total to 235,000m³.”

Table A1.1 and A1.2 (online versions only)

The following discharges during 2023, were incorrectly published in the ODS tables.

Table A1.1

Capenhurst (Urenco UK Ltd)

Uranium, should read 4.12E+05Bq

Capenhurst (UCP)

Uranium should read, 2.06E+04Bq

Table A1.2

Trawsfynydd

Tritium should read 3.84E+09Bq

Caesium-137 should read 2.54E+08Bq

Other radionuclides should read 6.89E+08Bq (2.3% of annual limit)

RIFE 28, 2022

General Summary (HTML version only) and Section 3 Highlights (HTML Version and Page 82 of the PDF version)

“Radiation dose from historical discharges of naturally occurring radionuclides (non-nuclear industry) was lower in 2022. The contribution to ‘total dose’ from Sellafield discharges decreased in 2022.”

Should read

“Radiation dose from historical discharges of naturally occurring radionuclides (non-nuclear industry) was higher in 2022. The contribution to ‘total dose’ from Sellafield discharges decreased in 2022.”

This has been amended in the HTML version only.

RIFE 28 Technical Summary Tables (On-line version only)

The note

“The doses from man-made and naturally occurring radionuclides at Sellafield were 0.014 and 0.14mSv, respectively.  The source of man-made radionuclides was Sellafield; naturally occurring ones were from the phosphate processing works near Sellafield at Whitehaven. Minor discharges of radionuclides were also made from the LLWR near Drigg site into the same area”

Should read

“The doses from man-made and naturally occurring radionuclides at Sellafield were 0.014 and 0.22mSv, respectively.  The source of man-made radionuclides was Sellafield; naturally occurring ones were from the phosphate processing works near Sellafield at Whitehaven. Minor discharges of radionuclides were also made from the LLWR near Drigg site into the same area”

A revised version of this file was made available alongside the HTML version of the report.

Table 1.1, Page 54 and HTML Version

The direct radiation doses for Sizewell were transposed. The entry in the main table for Sizewell should have read “0.010mSv” and the corresponding footnote read

“Sizewell exposure shows those for Sizewell B. Sizewell A (0.001) not used. The dose to workers at Sizewell A from Sizewell B was 0.0073”

The corresponding dose text (Section 4.1.5, page 168) should read

“The ‘total dose’ from all pathways and sources of radiation was 0.011mSv in 2022 (Table 4.1) or approximately 1% of the dose limit, and down from 0.016mSv in 2021. This decrease in dose (from 2021) was mostly due to a lower estimate of direct radiation from the site in 2022 (Table 1.1). The representative person was unchanged from 2021. The trend in ‘total dose’ over the period 2011 to 2022 is given in Figure 4‑1. Any variation in ‘total dose’ from year to year was due to a change in the contribution from direct radiation from the site. The ‘total dose’ has declined (reduced by a factor of 5 or 6), following the closure of the Magnox reactors at Sizewell A in 2006 (Figure 4.1, [47]). “

These changes also apply to Tables 1.2, 1.3, and 4.1 as given in the Errata tables and to figures (S, 1.2 and 4.1). Corrected versions of Figure 1.2 and 4.1 are presented in RIFE 29.

Section 3.3.1, Page 102 and HTML Version

Ravenglass. The text

“The dose to a person who spends a long time over the marsh in the Ravenglass Estuary was 0.014mSv in 2022, and a decrease from that in 2021 (0.019mSv). This decrease in dose was due to lower occupancy over salt marsh (Appendix 4, Table A4.2) and to a lesser extent the lower gamma dose rates over salt marsh close to Eskmeals.”

Should read

“The dose to a person who spends a long time over the marsh in the Ravenglass Estuary was 0.015mSv in 2022, and a decrease from that in 2021 (0.019mSv). This decrease in dose was due to lower occupancy over salt marsh (Appendix 4, Table A4.2) and to a lesser extent the lower gamma dose rates over salt marsh close to Eskmeals.”

These changes also apply to Tables 1.4 and 3.16 as given in the Errata tables.

Table 3.3, Page 130 (PDF version only)

The values in the 16th column (before gross alpha and gross beta) represent ²⁴¹Am activity concentrations, not ²⁴¹Pu.

Section 4.1.2, Page 162 and HTML version

The sentence “Heysham 1 commenced operation in 1983 and Heysham 2 began operating in 1988. It is estimated that Heysham 1 and 2 will continue to generate electricity until 2024 and 2028, respectively”

should read

“Heysham 1 commenced operation in 1983 and Heysham 2 began operating in 1988. It is estimated that Heysham 1 and 2 will continue to generate electricity until 2026 and 2028, respectively.”

The sentence “Regulated discharges of radioactive liquid effluent are made via outfalls into Morecambe Bay.”

should read

“Permitted discharges of radioactive liquid effluent are made via outfalls into Morecambe Bay.”

The sentence “In general, activity concentrations in 2022 were similar (in comparison to those in recent years) and the effect of liquid disposals from Heysham was difficult to detect above the Sellafield background.”

Should read

“In general, activity concentrations in 2022 were similar in comparison to those in recent years and the effect of liquid disposals from Heysham was difficult to detect above the Sellafield background.”

These amendments have been made in the HTML version only.

Section 6.2, Barrow (HTML version only)

The text for this section was omitted in error and is presented below.

6.2 Barrow, Cumbria

At Barrow, BAE Systems Marine Limited builds, tests and commissions new nuclear-powered submarines. Gaseous discharges were reported as nil and liquid discharges of tritium, carbon-14 and cobalt-60 to sewer were all very low (<1% of the annual limit) in 2022. The most recent habits survey was undertaken in 2012 (Garrod CJ an others 2013b).

The ‘total dose’ from all pathways and sources of radiation was 0.030mSv (Table 6.1) in 2022, or 3% of the dose limit, and down from 0.044mSv in 2021. Virtually all of this dose was due to the effects of Sellafield discharges. As in recent years, the representative person was adults living on a local houseboat. The decrease in ‘total dose’ was mostly due to gamma dose rates being measured over different substrates at Askam Pier, from one year to the next.

As in 2021, source specific assessments for a high-rate consumer of locally grown food and a person living on a local houseboat gave exposures that were less than the ‘total dose’ in 2022 (Table 6.1). No assessment of seafood consumption was undertaken in 2022 because of the absence of relevant monitoring data. However, the dose from seafood consumption is less important than that from external exposure on a houseboat (Environment Agency, Food Standards Agency, Northern Ireland Environment Agency, and others 2014).

The FSA’s terrestrial monitoring is limited to vegetable and grass (or silage) sampling. The Environment Agency monitors gamma dose rates and analysis of sediment samples from local intertidal areas and is directed primarily at the far-field effects of Sellafield discharges. The results are given in Table 6.3(a) and Table 6.3(b). No effects of discharges from Barrow were apparent in the concentrations of radioactivity in vegetables and silage, most reported as less than values. In 2022, the reported gross beta concentration (due to the far-field effects of Sellafield discharges) in Walney Channel sediment was higher in comparison to that in 2021. The gamma dose rates in intertidal areas near Barrow in 2022 are given in Table 6.3(b) and Table 3.9. As in previous years, gamma dose rates were enhanced above those expected due to natural background, and generally lower than those measured in 2021. Any enhancement above natural background is most likely due to the far-field effects of historical discharges from Sellafield.

Table 8.5, Page 300

The headings in the second part of the table should read, ¹³⁷Cs^d, ²³⁸Pu^c, ^239+240Pu^c, ²⁴¹Am^c, Gross alpha and Gross beta, respectively.

Concentration of carbon-14 in terrestrial foods (FSA samples only)

Due to issues relating to the integrity and condition of a certified standard solution and an internal quality control material for the combustion method used for measuring carbon-14 in FSA’s terrestrial food materials, which were acquired in early 2022, the carbon-14 results produced in for samples collected in 2022 had to be reviewed and corrected to ensure that they meet rigorous quality standards. Where necessary, appropriate correction factors have been applied to these data and are presented below. In all cases, the carbon-14 activity concentrations (and hence, doses) published in the RIFE28 report, which was published in November 2023 were overestimated by very small amounts. Changes to assessments, tables, figures, and text are also summarised below. The amended tables have been restricted to those sites affected.

In all concentration tables - these data give the mean carbon-14 radioactivity concentration (fresh), Bq kg^-1, except for milk and freshwater where units are Bq l^-1 and for sediment and soil where dry concentrations apply. Data are arithmetic means unless stated as ‘max’.’ Max’ data are selected to be maxima. If no ‘max’ value is given, the mean value is the most appropriate for dose assessments. For milk, it is the number of farms from which milk is sampled and the number of analyses is greater and depends on the bulking regime.

Note for Table 3.16: The breakdown of dose for adult root vegetable consumers (maximum effect of gaseous releases and direct radiation) was presented incorrectly in the ODS version of the table and is presented below for completeness. It is correct in the PDF version.

Note for Table 5.1: This was presented incorrectly in RIFE 28 and included for completeness.

Revised dose plots for Figures 1.2, 3.1, 3.6 to 3.9, 4.1 and 5.1 will be presented in RIFE 29, alongside the revised Figure 3.10. The differences in bar heights for Figures S and 1.3 are imperceptible, so have not been replicated.

These data are given in the Errata tables.

‘Total dose’ from gaseous discharges and direct radiation (section 3.3.1, page 98, first paragraph)

The sentences

“The most important radionuclides were americium-241 (34%), polonium-210 (in seafood,10%), carbon-14 (8%), strontium-90 (4%) and iodine-129 (4%). other age groups received lower exposure than the ‘total dose’ for adults of 0.010mSv (10-year-old children: 0.007mSv, 1-year-old infants: 0.007mSv and prenatal children: <0.005mSv).”

Should read

“The most important radionuclides were americium-241 (35%), polonium-210 (in seafood,10%), carbon-14 (6%), strontium-90 (4%) and iodine-129 (4%). other age groups received lower exposure than the ‘total dose’ for adults of 0.010mSv (10-year-old children: 0.007mSv, 1-year-old infants: 0.006mSv and prenatal children: <0.005mSv).”

Doses from terrestrial food consumption (Section 3.3.1, page 100)

The paragraph

“In 2022, infants (1-year-old) consuming milk at high rates and exposed to external and inhalation pathways from gaseous discharges received the highest dose for all ages. The estimated dose was 0.012mSv in 2022 (Table 3.16), or approximately 1% of the dose limit to members of the public and up from 0.010mSv in 2021. Other age groups received less exposure than the infants (1-year-old) dose of 0.012mSv in 2022 (adults: 0.011mSv; 10-year-old children: 0.009mSv; prenatal children: 0.005mSv).”

Should read

“In 2022, infants (1-year-old) consuming milk at high rates and exposed to external and inhalation pathways from gaseous discharges received the highest dose for all ages. The estimated dose was 0.011mSv in 2022 (Table 3.16), or approximately 1% of the dose limit to members of the public and up from 0.010mSv in 2021. Other age groups received less exposure than the infants (1-year-old) dose of 0.011mSv in 2022 (adults: 0.011mSv; 10-year-old children: 0.009mSv; prenatal children: <0.005mSv).”

Doses from atmospheric sea to land transfer (Section 3.3.1, page 102, first paragraph)

The sentence

“In 2022, the dose (including contributions from Chernobyl and fallout from nuclear weapons testing) was estimated to be 0.012mSv, which was approximately 1% of the dose limit for members of the public, and up from 0.009mSv in 2021.”

Should read

“In 2022, the dose (including contributions from Chernobyl and fallout from nuclear weapons testing) was estimated to be 0.011mSv, which was approximately 1% of the dose limit for members of the public, and up from 0.009mSv in 2021.”

Heysham – Doses to the Public (Section 4.1.2, page 162, third paragraph)

The sentences

“The estimated dose for terrestrial food consumption was 0.005mSv and down from 0.006mSv in 2021. The small decrease in dose for the terrestrial food consumption was mostly attributed to a lower maximum concentration of carbon-14 in milk measured in 2022.”

Should read

“The estimated dose for terrestrial food consumption was less than 0.005mSv and down from 0.006mSv in 2021. The decrease in dose for the terrestrial food consumption was mostly attributed to a lower maximum concentration of carbon-14 in milk measured in 2022.”

Hinkley Point – Doses to the Public (Section 4.1.3, page 164, third paragraph)

The sentences

“The dose to this consumer of locally grown food was 0.007mSv in 2022 and up from 0.005mSv in 2021. The main reason for the increase in dose was mostly due to higher concentrations of carbon-14 in milk in 2022, in comparison to those in 2021.”

Should read

“The dose to this consumer of locally grown food was 0.006mSv in 2022 and up from 0.005mSv in 2021. The main reason for the increase in dose was mostly due to slightly higher concentrations of carbon-14 in milk in 2022, in comparison to those in 2021.”

Berkeley and Oldbury - Doses to the public (Section 4.2.1, page 171)

The paragraphs

“In 2022, the ‘total dose’ from all pathways and sources of radiation was 0.006mSv (Table 4.1), or less than 1% of the dose limit, and down from 0.013mSv in 2021. The representative person was infants consuming milk and a change from that in 2021 (infants living near the site). The decrease in ‘total dose’ was mostly attributed to lower direct radiation from the Berkeley site in 2022. The trend in the ‘total dose’ over the period 2011 to 2022 is given in Figure 4 1. Any longer-term variations in ‘total doses’ over time are attributable to changes in the contribution from direct radiation.

As in 2021, the source specific assessments for a high-rate consumer of fish and shellfish, in the vicinity of the Berkeley and Oldbury sites, gave exposures that was less than 0.005mSv in 2022 (Table 4.1). The dose to a consumer of fish and shellfish includes external gamma radiation and a component due to the tritium historically discharged from the former GE Healthcare Limited plant at Cardiff. The estimated dose for a high-rate consumer (infant) of locally grown foods gave an exposure of 0.007mSv and was up from less than 0.005mSv in 2021. The increase in dose was mostly due to higher concentrations of carbon-14 in milk, in comparison to those observed in 2021. The estimated dose for houseboat dwellers was 0.009mSv in 2022, and a decrease from 2021 (0.025mSv). The reason for the decrease in estimated dose for houseboat dwellers was because the gamma dose rates recorded at Sharpness were lower on average in 2022, in comparison to the dose rate over mud observed in 2021. The estimate for this pathway is determined as a cautious value (and therefore not included in the ‘total dose’ assessment), because gamma dose rate measurements used were not necessarily representative of the categories of ground type and houseboat location (as identified in the habits survey [179]).”

Should read

“In 2022, the ‘total dose’ from all pathways and sources of radiation was less than 0.005mSv (Table 4.1), or less than 0.5% of the dose limit, and down from 0.013mSv in 2021. The representative person was infants consuming milk and a change from that in 2021 (infants living near the site). The decrease in ‘total dose’ was mostly attributed to lower direct radiation from the Berkeley site in 2022. The trend in the ‘total dose’ over the period 2011 to 2022 is given in Figure 4‑1. Any longer-term variations in ‘total doses’ over time are attributable to changes in the contribution from direct radiation.

As in 2021, the source specific assessments for a high-rate consumer of fish and shellfish, in the vicinity of the Berkeley and Oldbury sites, gave exposures that was less than 0.005mSv in 2022 (Table 4.1). The dose to a consumer of fish and shellfish includes external gamma radiation and a component due to the tritium historically discharged from the former GE Healthcare Limited plant at Cardiff. The estimated dose for a high-rate consumer (infant) of locally grown foods gave an exposure of 0.005mSv and was up from less than 0.005mSv in 2021. The increase in dose was mostly due to slightly higher concentrations of carbon-14 in milk, in comparison to those observed in 2021. The estimated dose for houseboat dwellers was 0.009mSv in 2022, and a decrease from 2021 (0.025mSv). The reason for the decrease in estimated dose for houseboat dwellers was because the gamma dose rates recorded at Sharpness were lower on average in 2022, in comparison to the dose rate over mud observed in 2021. The estimate for this pathway is determined as a cautious value (and therefore not included in the ‘total dose’ assessment), because gamma dose rate measurements used were not necessarily representative of the categories of ground type and houseboat location (as identified in the habits survey [179]).”

Trawsfynydd – Doses to the Public (Section 4.2.5, page 177, second paragraph)

The sentence

“The dose to infants (1-year-old) consuming terrestrial food was 0.038mSv, or less than 4% of the dose limit. This was slightly than in 2021 (0.040mSv) and the main reason for the small decrease in dose was because of lower concentrations of carbon-14 in milk samples collected in 2022.”

Should read

“The dose to infants (1-year-old) consuming terrestrial food was 0.037mSv, or less than 4% of the dose limit. This was slightly lower than in 2021 (0.040mSv) and the main reason for the small decrease in dose was because of lower concentrations of carbon-14 in milk samples collected in 2022.”

7.1 Low Level Waste Repository near Drigg, Cumbria (page 254, last paragraph)

The paragraph

“The ‘total dose’ from all pathways and sources of radiation was 0.16mSv in 2022, or 16% of the dose limit for members of the public of 1mSv (Table 1.2 and Table 7.1) and includes a component due to the fallout from Chernobyl and nuclear weapons testing. This dose was dominated by the effects of naturally occurring radionuclides and the legacy of discharges into the sea at Sellafield, which are near to the LLWR site (see Section 3.3.1). If these effects were to be excluded, and the sources of exposure from the LLWR are considered, the ‘total dose’ from gaseous releases and direct radiation was 0.031mSv in 2022 (Table 1.2). The representative person was infants living near the site. The increase in ‘total dose’ (from 0.029mSv in 2021) was due to a higher estimate of direct radiation from the site in 2022. A source specific assessment of exposure for consumers of locally grown terrestrial food (animals fed on oats), using 2022 modelled activity concentrations in animal products, gives an exposure that was 0.006mSv in 2022, and similar to that in recent years.”

Should read

“The ‘total dose’ from all pathways and sources of radiation was 0.16mSv in 2022, or 16% of the dose limit for members of the public of 1mSv (Table 1.2 and Table 7.1) and includes a component due to the fallout from Chernobyl and nuclear weapons testing. This dose was dominated by the effects of naturally occurring radionuclides and the legacy of discharges into the sea at Sellafield, which are near to the LLWR site (see Section 3.3.1). If these effects were to be excluded, and the sources of exposure from the LLWR are considered, the ‘total dose’ from gaseous releases and direct radiation was 0.030mSv in 2022 (Table 1.2). The representative person was infants living near the site. The increase in ‘total dose’ (from 0.029mSv in 2021) was due to a higher estimate of direct radiation from the site in 2022. A source specific assessment of exposure for consumers of locally grown terrestrial food (animals fed on oats), using 2022 modelled activity concentrations in animal products, gives an exposure that was less than 0.005mSv in 2022, and similar to that in recent years.”

8.5 Milk (page 279, second paragraph)

The sentence

“The maximum concentrations of carbon-14 in milk for England (Dorset and Kent), Northern Ireland (Co. Tyrone), Wales (Clywd) and Scotland (Dumfriesshire and Nairnshire) were 22, 25, 43 and less than 16Bq l^-1, respectively.”

Should read

“The maximum concentrations of carbon-14 in milk for England (Dorset and Kent), Northern Ireland (Co. Tyrone), Wales (Clywd) and Scotland (Dumfriesshire and Nairnshire) were 20, 22, 40 and less than 16Bq l^-1, respectively.”

Previous RIFE reports (RIFE 20 to 28, inclusive)

Gaseous discharges of Tritium from Dounreay

In November 2023, Magnox Limited notified SEPA of an issue with the measurement of totalised tritium sampler flowrates associated with gaseous discharges from 2 stacks. As a result, incorrect sample flowrate information had been used in the calculation of gaseous tritium discharges from these stacks.  The revised data for tritium discharges are shown below. The 2014 data are for May to December.

These data are given in the Errata tables.

RIFE 27, 2021

Page 258, Table 6.6

The activity concentration data for ²¹⁰Pb in 2021 samples presented in Table 6.6 were incorrect. The corrected data are presented in the ‘Errata tables’ file on the main RIFE page.

This has resulted in small changes to the sum of doses for the 1-year consumption and occupancy rates and mollusc source specific aquatic assessments as documented below. The reported ‘total dose’ and 5-year averaged consumption and occupancy rate assessments were unchanged.

The paragraph “Taking artificial and enhanced natural radionuclides together…”

Should read “Taking artificial and enhanced natural radionuclides together, the source specific doses were 0.22mSv and 0.25mSv for the annual and five-year rolling average habits data, respectively. The dose to mollusc consumers (2021 data only) was 0.020mSv). These estimates are slightly higher than the estimate of ‘total dose’ from all sources of 0.21mSv. The main reason for this is a difference in the approach to selecting consumption rates for seafood for the representative person. The differences in dose are expected and are within the uncertainties in the assessments (see Appendix 1, Section 3.8).”

The dose to mollusc consumers (2021 data only) was 0.007mSv.

RIFE 22 to 27, 2016 to 2021

Non-nuclear discharge data

Non-nuclear discharge data for this period was not included in the non-nuclear discharge tables within RIFE. These data are available upon request from Natural Resources Wales at enquiries@naturalresourceswales.gov.uk

1. The Cumbrian coastal community are exposed to radioactivity resulting from both current and historical discharges from the Sellafield site and naturally occurring radioactivity discharged from the former phosphate processing works near Whitehaven, close to Sellafield. ↩

2. Values are rounded to 2 significant figures, or 3 decimal places, depending on their magnitude. ↩