Annual report on the Home Office forensic early warning system (FEWS), 2021 to 2022
Updated 4 April 2023
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DSTL/PUB142878
31 March 2022
Dstl
Porton Down
Salisbury
Wilts
SP4 0JQ
Release conditions
© Crown copyright (2022), Dstl.
This material is licensed under the terms of the Open Government Licence except where otherwise stated. To view this licence, visit http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3) or write to the Information Policy Team, The National Archives, Kew, London TW9 4DU, or email: psi@nationalarchives.gov.uk.
Executive summary
Dstl is funded by the Home Office Drugs Misuse and Firearms Unit (DMFU) through an activity called the Forensic Early Warning System (FEWS). The aim of FEWS is to identify trends in new psychoactive substances (NPS) available in the United Kingdom. The NPS trends identified by FEWS may be used as evidence to support future drug legislation. Any new substances which are not currently controlled under the Misuse of Drugs Act (MDA) 1971 can be commissioned for in-vitro testing (to determine whether a substance is capable of causing a psychoactive effect) in order to support the Psychoactive Substances Act (PSA) 2016. FEWS reports any newly identified NPS to the UK Focal Point who creates a watch list of substances within the UK.
In FY 2021 to 2022, FEWS collated data from samples of suspected NPS from UK Border Force (UKBF) locations and UK prisons. From prisons, 500 non-attributable samples and 600 attributable samples (data) were collected. 70 of the non-attributable samples collected were non-drug items and were not analysed. No drugs were detected in 153 of the 500 samples analysed. Of the remaining samples, 349 substances were detected comprising of 47 unique substances. It was reported that no drugs were detected in 87 of the attributable samples. 609 substances were detected in the remaining 513 samples comprising of 80 unique substances.
FEWS collected 490 samples from one UKBF location. The samples sometimes contained more than one substance. 671 substances were detected in the samples analysed, comprising of 89 unique substances. No drugs were detected in 12 samples. 201 NPS were detected comprising of 40 different drugs.
Dstl were tasked by DMFU, as part of a response to a recommendation made by the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) to collect samples of cocaine and heroin and analyse them for NSOs. No NSOs were detected in samples collected this year. Only a single NSO (ocfentanil) has been identified in traditional samples selected for analysis in all FEWS collections.
1. Introduction
1.1 New psychoactive substances
The term new psychoactive substances (NPS, sometimes referred to as a novel psychoactive substances) is used to describe substances that are produced to mimic the effects of traditional illicit drugs. These substances might not be recent innovations but are considered new in that they are now being used recreationally as a drug or are available as a recreational drug in the UK. Other definitions of similar substances such as ‘legal highs’ are not fit for purpose as many NPS are now controlled under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971[footnote 1] (from herein referred to as the MDA), and therefore NPS can refer to both controlled and non-controlled substances.
The Home Office’s expert review panel defined NPS as: ‘Psychoactive drugs, newly available in the UK, which are not prohibited by the United Nations Drug Conventions but which may pose a public health threat comparable to that posed by substances listed in these conventions’.[footnote 2] The term NPS in this report encapsulates all substances that have emerged in the UK recreational drug market since 2008. The addition of a drug to the MDA after 2008 does not exclude it from being referred to as an NPS. Therefore, an NPS has been defined throughout this report as either a compound controlled by the Psychoactive Substances Act (from herein referred to as the PSA) 2016 or a compound controlled by the MDA post-2008.
It is not always clear whether prevalence of a controlled medicine is due to legitimate use or misuse and, therefore, medicines suspected of abuse are marked in this report as suspected NPS. Occasionally, evidence of the misuse of controlled medicines becomes prevalent, for example, with pregabalin[footnote 3] which, due to its misuse, was added to the MDA as a Class C drug in 2019; it is therefore a confirmed NPS.
1.2 Introduction of the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016
Some drugs are controlled by the MDA as a named substance, others through a generic structure clause. In the early 2010s NPS that were not controlled by the MDA became increasingly available.[footnote 4] When an NPS was added to the MDA, it was often replaced in the recreational drug market by a new substance that was not controlled. This led to a different approach in 2016 with the introduction of the PSA.[footnote 5] A substance is subject to the PSA if it ‘is capable of producing a psychoactive effect in a person who consumes it’.
1.3 The Forensic Early Warning System
The aim of the Forensic Early Warning System (FEWS) is to examine trends in the seizures of NPS in the UK including prisons and border locations and to identify if any new substances emerge in the recreational drug market. This activity is carried out for the Home Office Drugs Misuse and Firearms Unit (DMFU). Figure 1 provides an overview of the activities conducted by the FEWS project.
FEWS also provides support to the PSA by determining if substances are capable of producing a psychoactive effect.
Additionally the data acquired by FEWS can be shared with the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) who may advise the government to control such substances under the MDA.
Figure 1: Overview of the FEWS Project, red indicates activities supported by FEWS, grey indicates impact and output from FEWS.
2. Data collection
Dstl gather data from a range of sources in order to identify novel substances that may require in-vitro testing as well as trends in NPS prevalence in the UK. The main source of data is through collection plans arranged by FEWS. FEWS also reviews open source literature and other sources of data to gain an understanding of trends internationally.
2.1 Collection plans
Dstl coordinated the collection and analysis of suspected NPS samples from United Kingdom Border Force (UKBF) hubs and UK prisons. Additional data was received from FSPs. The flow chart in Figure 2 shows the different sources of data collected.
Figure 2: Data collected as part of FEWS 2021 to 2022.
Attributable and adopted samples are analysed by FSPs as part of casework. The data is then requested by Dstl. Non-attributable and un-adopted samples would have ordinarily been disposed of and not analysed if not collected by FEWS.
2.2 UKBF sample collection
An overview of the collection process for samples seized at UK borders is given in Figure 3 below.
Figure 3: UKBF sample collection cycle.
In order to broaden the locations of sample collection covered in FY 2021 to 2022, Dstl engaged with 5 different UKBF hubs. The hubs covered a range of packaging, from letters and small packages up to larger freight and cargo. Unfortunately, samples could only be collected from a single UKBF hub, but FEWS hopes to expand to collect from more hubs in FY 2022 to 2023.
2.3 UKBF sample analysis
490 samples were collected from a single UKBF hub and analysed by a FSP. Full analysis results were not provided for ten samples as a result of analytical complications (detailed in Appendix A); these will be sent for further analysis and confirmed in FY 2022 to 2023.
As with previous years, following an ACMD recommendation[footnote 6], traditional drug samples and unidentified powders were collected alongside suspected NPS samples. 62 samples tentatively identified as cocaine (by UKBF) and 51 samples tentatively identified (by UKBF) as heroin were collected.
Additionally, the results of 52 samples adopted by the police were received from FSPs.
2.4 UKBF sample results
The physical descriptions of the samples collected are shown in Figure 4. The majority of samples were tablets and powders.
Figure 4: Composition of UKBF samples.
Samples were analysed to determine chemical composition. 671 substances were detected in the samples analysed, comprising of 89 unique substances. Sometimes more than one substance was detected in a sample. No drugs were detected in 12 samples. Figure 5 shows the number of substances considered to be NPS, traditional drugs or substances not controlled by the MDA or PSA. Note substances labelled as uncontrolled may still be restricted as prescription only medication.
Figure 5: Number of substances detected in UKBF samples analysed by FEWS . (Left) total number of substances; (Right) number of different substances. In total, 201 NPS were detected, comprising of 40 unique substances.
A variety of substances considered to be NPS were detected. The number of NPS grouped by drug class/type is given in Figure 6.
Figure 6: NPS substances detected in UKBF samples by drug class/type.
2.4.1 Number of unique NPS substances per year
The number of unique substances detected per FY by FEWS is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Number of unique NPS substances detected by FEWS since FY 2018 to 2019.
A similar number of unique substances was detected in FY 2021 to 2022 in comparison to last year’s collection plan. FY 2019 to 2020 was an anomaly as very few NPS samples were collected that year.
2.4.2 Novel substances identified in UKBF samples
AP-238 (1-(4-cinnamyl-2,6-dimethylpiperazin-1-yl)propan-1-one)
AP-238 is classified as a NSO and member of the cinnamylpiperazine subclass.[footnote 7] The sample was found in a postal seizure that also contained a sample of Desmethyltramadol; a synthetic opioid analgesic.
AP-238 is not controlled under the MDA, but is likely to be controlled under the PSA.
Deoxymethoxetamine
This arylcyclohexylamine was detected in 2 samples of white powder. Deoxymethoxetamine is controlled under the MDA as a Class B drug. This is the first time that this substance has been detected in a FEWS collection plan.
Tapentadol
This opioid is controlled under the MDA as a Class A Schedule 2 drug (controlled since 2011). Tapentadol is available to treat pain upon prescription. 6 seizures of tapentadol tablets were from a UKBF hub. This is the first time that this substance has been collected by FEWS.
4-HO-MET (3-{2-[Ethyl(methyl)amino]ethyl}-1H-indol-4-ol)
This tryptamine is controlled as a Class A Schedule 1 drug under the MDA. This substance was detected in a white powder seized at a UKBF hub. This is the first time that this substance has been detected in a FEWS collection plan.
2.4.3 Substances detected which are subject to the PSA
The following substances detected are subject to the PSA:
-
1cP-LSD
-
1P-LSD
-
3-Fluorophenmetrazine
-
Mitragynine
The benzodiazepines flualprazolam and flunitrazolam were also detected. These substances were previously subject to the PSA, but are now controlled as Class C Schedule 1 drugs through an amendment to the MDA in 2021.[footnote 8] In one instance flualprazolam was detected on paper, a relatively new trend for benzodiazepines.
2.4.4 Analysis of traditional drug samples for fentanils and novel synthetic opioids
As explained in Section 2.3, samples of cocaine and heroin (diamorphine) were collected. The samples were analysed to determine if any fentanils or NSOs were present. Such substances could pose a significant risk of overdose to users.
Cocaine
62 samples tentatively identified as cocaine and 15 additional unidentified white powders were analysed. No fentanils or NSOs were detected in any of the samples analysed.
Diamorphine (heroin)
51 samples were tentatively identified as heroin (diamorphine), no fentanils or NSOs were detected.
Historical collection and analysis of cocaine and diamorphine
Collection of cocaine and diamorphine samples began in 2020 in response to an ACMD recommendation.[footnote 9]. Since 2020, 480 samples containing cocaine and 175 samples containing diamorphine have been analysed. Ocfentanil was the only NSO detected in samples that were suspected to be a traditional drug. This was detected in one sample during FY 2020 to 2021 (identification confirmed during FY 2021 to 2022).
Consideration of sample size
The Home Office reported 17,641 seizures of cocaine (11,148kg) and 9,258 seizures of heroin (1,973kg) in the year ending March 2021.[footnote 10] The sample size analysed through FEWS is therefore comparatively small and is unlikely to be representative of all UK cocaine and heroin seizures. It is worth noting that FEWS collect samples that are unadopted by the police and these samples would not be analysed if they were not collected by FEWS.
2.5 Prison sample collection
The collection of 500 non-attributable samples was arranged, collected from 4 prisons. FSPs shared data relating to 600 attributable samples with Dstl. The attributable samples were collected from at least 43 prisons across the UK.
During FY 2021 to 2022 FEWS collected additional samples from His Majesty’s Prison and Probation Service (HMPPS) which had originated from a range of UK prisons. The seizures were primarily impregnated material such as paper or clothing and were sent for analysis by FSPs. The results were not received in time to include in this year’s annual report however they have been partially reported to HMPPS. The data will be included next year.
2.6 Prison sample results
70 of the non-attributable samples collected were non-drug items and were not analysed. No drug was detected in 153 of the 500 samples analysed. Of the remaining samples, 349 substances were detected comprising of 47 unique substances. Figure 8 details the breakdown of the substances detected.
It was reported that no drugs were detected in 87 of the attributable samples. 609 substances were detected in the remaining 513 samples comprising of 80 unique substances.
Figure 8: Number of substances detected in prison samples, non-attributable (left) and attributable (right).
Figure 9 shows the physical description of the samples, where this data was provided. The most prevalent sample type was impregnated paper.
Figure 9: Description of the type of samples collected from prisons.
Figure 10 shows NPS detected in prisons, grouped by drug type. The most prevalent group were synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs).
Figure 10: Prevalence of NPS substances collected from prisons.
The number of unique NPS substances detected per FY is shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11: Number of unique NPS substances detected per FY.
Figure 10 and Figure 11 show that SCRAs continue to be the most prevalent class of NPS substances.
No novel NPS substances were detected in prisons that were not controlled by the MDA or PSA. Figure 12 shows the 5 most prevalent SCRAs detected in FY 2021 to 2022. The graph is normalised by dividing the number of individual occurrences of each substance by the total number of SCRAs detected that financial year. This gives a representative indication of prevalence, as different numbers of samples have been collected each year. It can be seen that occurrences of MDMB-4en-PINACA have increased making it the most prevalent SCRA in FY 2021 to 2022.
Figure 12: Five most prevalent SCRAs in FY 2021 to 2022 compared to the same SCRAs in previous years. Data is normalised by the total number of SCRAs detected each FY as a percentage.
One FSP detected the substances listed in Table 1 in attributable samples. The FSP did not have reference materials for the substances so was only able to identify the sample through an external library match. The 15 samples labelled Unknown Synthetic Cannabinoid were thought to be a metabolite of 5F-MDMB-PICA but the FSP did not have a reference material to confirm the identification and, therefore, the identity remains unknown. The samples will be sent for further analysis.
Table 1: Unconfirmed or unidentified substances in attributable samples
Unconfirmed suggests that the FSP has tentatively identified the substance, but the sample requires further analysis for unequivocal identification.
| Drug name | Number of occurrences |
|---|---|
| Unknown synthetic cannabinoid | 15 |
| 3,5-ADB-4en-PFUPPYCA (unconfirmed) | 1 |
| ADB-HEXINACA (unconfirmed) | 1 |
| ADB-PHETINACA (unconfirmed) | 1 |
| AMP-4en-PINACA (unconfirmed) | 1 |
| Other | 1 |
All of the named SCRAs in Table 1 are controlled by a generic structure clause in the MDA. Although this is the first time they have been seen in collection plan data, they have all been reported in the open literature.
Conclusions
In FY 2021 to 2022, FEWS has collated data from samples of suspected NPS from UKBF locations and UK prisons.
From prisons, 500 non-attributable samples and 600 attributable samples (data) were collected. 70 of the non-attributable samples collected were non-drug items and were not analysed. No drugs were detected in 153 of the 500 samples analysed. Of the remaining samples, 349 substances were detected comprising of 47 unique substances. It was reported that no drugs were detected in 87 of the attributable samples. 609 substances were detected in the remaining 513 samples comprising of 80 unique substances.
Dstl collected over 100 non-attributable samples from several prisons as a separate tasking from HMPPS and these will be reported next financial year.
To monitor the prevalence of NPS samples at UKBF locations, FEWS collected 490 samples from a single UKBF location. Sometimes more than one substance was present in a sample. 671 substances were detected in the samples analysed, comprising of 89 unique substances. No drugs were detected in 12 samples. 201 NPS were detected comprising of 40 different drugs.
Novel synthetic opioids (NSOs) including fentanils continued to be target substances for FEWS this year. Dstl was tasked by DMFU, as part of a response to a recommendation made by the ACMD to collect samples of cocaine and heroin and analyse them for NSOs. Only a single NSO (ocfentanil) was identified in the suspected traditional drug samples selected for analysis in the FEWS collections, but FEWS was notified of several detections of NSOs in police seized samples.
List of chemical names
3,5-AB-CHMFUPPYCA
Synonyms
AB-CHFUPYCA
Chemical name
N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-3-(4-fluorophenyl)-1H-pyrazole-5-carboxamide
ADB-BUTINACA
Synonyms
ADB-BINACA
Chemical name
N-(1-Amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-butyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide
3,5-ADB-4en-PFUPPYCA
Synonyms
3,5-4en-ADB-FUPPYCA
Chemical name
N-(1-Amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-3-(4-fluorophenyl)-1-(pent-4-en-1-yl)-1H-pyrazole-5-carboxamide
ADB-HEXINACA
Synonyms
ADB-HINACA, ADMB-HEXINACA
Chemical name
N-(1-Amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-hexyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide
ADB-PHETINACA
Synonyms
ADB-PHTINACA
Chemical name
N-(1-Amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-phenethyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide
ADB-PINACA
Chemical name
N-(1-Amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-pentyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide
6-APB
Synonyms
6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran
Chemical name
1-(Benzofuran-6-yl)propan-2-amine
Alpha-PHP
Synonyms
alpha-Pyrrolidinohexanophenone
Chemical name
1-Phenyl-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)hexan-1-one
AMP-4en-PINACA
Synonyms
ABO-PENINACA, ABO-4en-PINACA
Chemical name
N-(1-amino-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-(pent-4-en-1-yl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide
AP-238
Synonyms
2,6-dimethyl propionyl AP-237
Chemical name
1-(4-cinnamyl-2,6-dimethylpiperazin-1-yl)propan-1-one
2C-B
Chemical name
2-(4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethan-1-amine
CBD
Synonyms
Cannabidiol
Chemical name
5’-Methyl-4-pentyl-2’-(prop-1-en-2-yl)-1’,2’,3’,4’-tetrahydro-[1,1’-biphenyl]-2,6-diol
5Cl-MDMB-PICA
Chemical name
Methyl 2-(1-(5-chloropentyl)-1H-indole-3-carboxamido)-3,3-dimethylbutanoate
1cP-LSD
Chemical name
(6aR,9R)-4-(Cyclopropanecarbonyl)-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide
ETH-LAD
Chemical name
(6aR,9R)-N,N,7-triethyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide
5F-3,5-AB-PFUPPYCA
Synonyms
AB-FUPPYCA
Chemical name
N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-(5-fluoropentyl)-3-(4-fluorophenyl)-1H-pyrazole-5-carboxamide
5F-AKB48
Synonyms
5F-APINACA
Chemical name
N-((3s,5s,7s)-adamantan-1-yl)-1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide
5F-AMB-PICA
Synonyms
5F-MMB-PICA, MMB2201
Chemical name
Methyl (1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indole-3-carbonyl)-L-valinate
5F-EMB-PICA
Synonyms
EMB-2201
Chemical name
Ethyl (1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indole-3-carbonyl)-L-valinate
4F-MDMB-BINACA
Synonyms
4F-MDMB-BUTINACA
Chemical name
Methyl 2-(1-(4-fluorobutyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamido)-3,3-dimethylbutanoate
4F-MDMB-BUTICA
Synonyms
4F-MDMB-BICA
Chemical name
Methyl 2-(1-(4-fluorobutyl)-1H-indole-3-carboxamido)-3,3-dimethylbutanoate
5F-MDMB-PICA
Synonyms
MDMB-2201,5F-MDMB-2201
Chemical name
Methyl 2-[[1-(5-fluoropentyl)indole-3-carbonyl]amino]-3,3-dimethyl-butanoate
5F-MDMB-PINACA
Synonyms
5F-ADB
Chemical name
Methyl 2-[1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamido]-3,3-dimethylbutanoate
5F-PB-22
Chemical name
Quinolin-8-yl 1-(5-chloropentyl)-1H-indole-3-carboxylate
4-HO-MET
Synonyms
4-Hydroxy-N-methyl-N-ethyltryptamine
Chemical name
3-(2-(ethyl(methyl)amino)ethyl)-1H-indol-4-ol
5-MAPB
Synonyms
5-(N-methyl-2- aminopropyl)benzofuran
Chemical name
1-(benzofuran-5-yl)-N-methylpropan-2-amine
MDMA
Chemical name
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine
MDMB-4en-PINACA
Chemical name
Methyl 3,3-dimethyl-2-(1-(pent-4-en-1-yl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamido)butanoate
MDPHP
Chemical name
1-(Benzo[d][1,3]dioxol-5-yl)-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)hexan-1-one
1P-LSD
Synonyms
1-Propionyl Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
Chemical name
(6aR,9R)-N,N-Diethyl-7-methyl-4-propionyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide
THC
Chemical name
Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol
TH-PVP
Chemical name
2-(Pyrrolidin-1-yl)-1-(5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)pentan-1-one
List of abbreviations
DMFU
Drugs Misuse and Firearms Unit
Dstl
Defence Science and Technology Laboratory
FEWS
Forensic Early Warning System
FSP
Forensic service provider
HMPPS
His Majesty’s Prison and Probation Service
LC-MS
Liquid chromatography – mass spectrometry
MDA
Misuse of Drugs Act 1971
NPS
New psychoactive substance
SCRA
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist
UK
United Kingdom
UKBF
United Kingdom Border Force
Appendix A: Results of UKBF sample analysis
490 samples were collected from a single UKBF location and analysed by a FSP. Of the samples collected:
-
One was reported as “not received for analysis”. The sample was tentatively identified as Khat by UKBF, a plant material that may have degraded.
-
One sample was not analysed. It was tentatively identified by UKBF as Human chorionic gonadotropin, a complex hormone that may not have been suitable for typical analytical techniques used for drugs due to its high molecular weight.
-
Four were reported as negative (no further sample).
Further work was required for 6 samples, but this had not been conducted at the time of writing.
In most instances the positional isomer of the substances analysed by the FSP were not given. For example 4-methylmethcathinone (mephedrone) and 3-methylmethcathinone were both reported as methylmethcathinone. The laboratory stated that the techniques used could not provide isomeric information.
52 samples adopted by the police were received from FSPs.
A.1.1 1 NPS
Table 2: NPS samples collected from UKBF
| Drug name | Number of occurrences | Control status |
|---|---|---|
| Tapentadol | 6 | Class A |
| 4-HO-MET | 1 | Class A |
| Alpha-Methyltryptamine | 1 | Class A |
| ETH-LAD | 1 | Class A |
| Methylmethcathinone | 47 | Class B |
| Alpha-PHP | 20 | Class B |
| N-Ethylhexedrone | 11 | Class B |
| Fluoroethylphenidate | 8 | Class B |
| Chloromethcathinone | 7 | Class B |
| 6-APB | 5 | Class B |
| N-Ethylcathinone | 4 | Class B |
| Fluorodeschloroketamine | 3 | Class B |
| Fluoromethylphenidate | 3 | Class B |
| Deoxymethoxetamine | 2 | Class B |
| Desmethyltramadol | 2 | Class B |
| MDPHP | 2 | Class B |
| 4-Methylcathinone | 1 | Class B |
| 4-Methylethylcathinone | 1 | Class B |
| 5-MAPB | 1 | Class B |
| ADB-BUTINACA | 1 | Class B |
| Deschloroketamine | 1 | Class B |
| Ethylphenidate | 1 | Class B |
| Methoxpropamine | 1 | Class B |
| N-Ethyldeschloroketamine | 1 | Class B |
| N-Ethylpentedrone | 1 | Class B |
| TH-PVP | 1 | Class B |
| Pregabalin | 16 | Class C |
| Etizolam | 12 | Class C |
| Zopiclone | 11 | Class C |
| Clonazolam | 9 | Class C |
| Flualprazolam | 4 | Class C |
| Flunitrazolam | 2 | Class C |
| Khat | 2 | Class C |
| Bromazepam | 1 | Class C |
| Gabapentin | 1 | Class C |
| 1cP-LSD | 4 | Controlled under the PSA |
| 1P-LSD | 2 | Controlled under the PSA |
| 3-Fluorophenmetrazine | 2 | Controlled under the PSA |
| Mitragynine | 1 | Controlled under the PSA |
| AP-238 | 1 | Controlled under the PSA |
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New Psychoactive Substances in England: A Review of the Evidence (PDF, 838KB)). ↩
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F. Schifano and others. Abuse of Prescription Drugs in the Context of Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS): A Systematic Review. Brain Sci, 2018, 8(4). ↩
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New Psychoactive Substances in England: A Review of the Evidence (PDF, 838KB)). ↩
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Response to the ACMD report on the misuse of fentanyl and fentanyl analogues (PDF, 157KB). ↩
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Melissa F. Fogarty and others. Toxicological and pharmacological characterization of novel cinnamylpiperazine synthetic opioids in humans and in vitro including 2-methyl AP-237 and AP-238. Archives of Toxicology, 2022. ↩
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The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (Amendment) Order 2021 No. 868. ↩
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Response to the ACMD report on the misuse of fentanyl and fentanyl analogues (PDF, 157KB). ↩
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Amy Baxter. Home Office. Seizures of drugs in England and Wales, financial year ending 2021. [Online] Accessed 21/03/22. ↩