Research and analysis

Wastewater analysis: estimating drug consumption, 2021 to 2026

Published 14 October 2026

Applies to England and Scotland

Executive summary

Since 2021, the Home Office’s Wastewater Analysis for Narcotics Detection (WAND) programme has collected samples from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs, or sites) across England and Scotland (Scotland between August 2024 and October 2025 only). WAND uses wastewater chemical analysis, a method used internationally to compare estimated drug consumption levels over time. The programme is delivered by a consortium of Aqua Clear, Eurofins and Catalytic AI.

This report presents the latest findings from the programme, covering August 2024 to March 2026. Previous reports can be found here: Wastewater analysis: measuring drug consumption. This report updates the trend analysis across 16 English sites that have been monitored consistently since 2021. It covers 6 drugs: cocaine, ketamine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA, and heroin. It also identifies regions with particularly high or low consumption estimates. For the first time, this report includes where and when 18 additional drugs were detected during WAND phase 3.

Key findings

Trends in consumption

The analysis found that:

• trends were broadly unchanged from those previously reported, with cocaine remaining the most consumed of the 6 monitored drugs
• estimated cocaine consumption increased by 17% between 2021 and 2026, but decreased by 7% between 2025 and 2026
• estimated ketamine consumption decreased by 11% between early 2025 and early 2026, following several years of sustained growth

Regional patterns

The analysis found that:

• regional patterns were broadly consistent with the earlier phase 3 findings
• the North West had comparatively higher consumption estimates for amphetamine, MDMA and ketamine than other sampled regions
• London had comparatively higher consumption estimates for methamphetamine than other sampled regions

Additional drugs tested

Testing for additional drugs found that:

• synthetic opioids such as nitazenes and fentanyl were rarely detected when tested for
• 5-aminoisotonitazene (a nitazene analyte) was detected across multiple regions, but not every time it was tested for

WAND phase 4 began in April 2026 and operates at a reduced scale. Its 16 sites have been monitored consistently throughout the programme, allowing long-term trends to be tracked on a like-for-like basis. The programme now focuses on 5 drugs: cocaine, ketamine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, and heroin. It also tests for the presence or absence of 5-aminoisotonitazene and mephedrone (4-MMC).

1. Introduction

The Home Office Wastewater Analysis for Narcotics Detection (WAND) programme was established in 2021 to provide evidence on patterns of illicit drug consumption. Since then, the programme has provided insights into trends in drug consumption, regional variation, and the presence of a wider range of substances across England and Scotland.

WAND uses wastewater analysis, a method used internationally, to analyse samples taken from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs, or sites) across England and Scotland (Scotland between August 2024 and October 2025 only). Wales was not included in the WAND programme. At the time of commissioning, the Welsh Government had its own wastewater analysis programme and was assessing its use for narcotic drug detection.

When drugs are consumed, they enter wastewater either as the drug itself or metabolites, which are substances produced when the body breaks the drug down. When wastewater samples are analysed in the laboratory, the substance measured is known as the analyte. This can be the drug itself or a metabolite. For example, cocaine is broken down into a metabolite called benzoylecgonine, which is measured as the analyte.

The WAND programme collected wastewater samples during testing cycles, which are defined periods of sampling and analysis. During phase 3, each testing cycle covered approximately 2 months, during which a 7-day composite wastewater sample was collected from each site. Measurements of analytes were then used to calculate the quantity consumed of 6 drugs: cocaine, ketamine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA, and heroin.

This publication presents the latest findings from WAND phase 3, which ran from August 2024 to March 2026. It updates the 2021 to 2026 trend analysis for cocaine, ketamine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA, and heroin. This analysis covers 16 English sites monitored consistently throughout WAND, representing around 22% of England’s population. The population estimates for the sites have been updated from previous publications to reflect the latest census populations. Monitoring the same sites over time allows consumption trends to be compared on a like-for-like basis. This publication also highlights regions and individual sites with particularly high or low consumption estimates during phase 3. For the first time, it reports the testing cycles and sites where 18 additional drugs were detected during phase 3. The 18 additional drugs included gabapentin, pregabalin, temazepam, nordiazepam, synthetic opioids such as fentanyl and several nitazenes, and other drugs of interest.

Consumption estimates for the trend and regional analyses use data from different numbers of sites:

• the trend analysis uses data from 16 sites that have been consistently sampled since 2021
• the regional analysis uses data from all 52 sites monitored during WAND phase 3, providing broader geographical coverage and enabling comparisons between regions

Prior to the WAND programme, information on drug misuse largely came from surveys such as the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW). Wastewater analysis provides an objective, timely indicator of population-level drug consumption within sampled sites. Unlike surveys, it does not rely on people reporting their own drug use. It can also provide insight into groups that may not be fully covered by household surveys, such as people who are homeless or living in institutions such as prisons. Like other data sources, wastewater analysis has its own methodological and sampling limitations, as discussed throughout this report. Used alongside surveys, drug seizure data and law enforcement intelligence, wastewater analysis provides a broader picture of drug consumption and drug markets.

Limitations of the data are:

• the 16 sites used for trend analysis cover an estimated 22% of England’s population and were selected for consistent monitoring, not national representativeness
• consumption estimates do not show the number of people using drugs; changes may reflect the quantity consumed rather than the number of people using them
• estimates may be affected by seasonal changes in drug consumption and wastewater conditions, with consumption potentially higher during summer events, festivals and bank holidays
• rainfall can also affect wastewater flow and the time substances spend travelling through the sewer network, which may affect the resulting estimates
• heroin estimates are experimental and should be interpreted with caution because the methodology is more uncertain than for other substances

The programme does not currently test for cannabis due to complexities associated with the sampling method. See Annex A for more information on the current WAND methodology.

2. Updated trend analysis

2.1 Overview

The WAND programme has monitored the same 16 sites in England since 2021. Using the same sites each year allows changes in consumption to be compared on a consistent basis over time across those locations.

This analysis covers 6 drugs: cocaine, ketamine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA, and heroin.

2.2 Trends in consumption, 2021 to 2026

Table 1: Trends in estimated consumption of 6 monitored drugs, across 16 consistently monitored WAND sites, 2021 to 2026 (based on milligrams per 1,000 people per day¹)

Estimates are shown with standard errors². Population-weighted means were produced in sampling windows between January and April each year from 2021 to 2026³

Drug	20214	20224	20234	20244	20255	20265
Cocaine	3,206 (+/‑ 109)	4,164 (+/‑ 62)	4,328 (+/‑ 156)	4,975 (+/‑ 201)	4,045 (+/‑ 98)	3,743 (+/‑ 134)
Ketamine	324 (+/‑ 8)	353 (+/‑ 5)	391 (+/‑ 15)	691 (+/‑ 34)	1,066 (+/‑ 30)	953 (+/‑ 38)
Amphetamine	2,711 (+/‑ 144)	2,167 (+/‑ 111)	3,978 (+/‑ 333)	3,311 (+/‑ 833)	1,978 (+/‑ 111)	1,208 (+/‑ 39)
Methamphetamine	149 (+/‑ 6)	135 (+/‑ 4)	157 (+/‑ 5)	192 (+/‑ 8)	240 (+/‑ 8)	260 (+/‑ 12)
MDMA	93 (+/‑ 7)	139 (+/‑ 7)	158 (+/‑ 11)	257 (+/‑ 25)	311 (+/‑ 28)	325 (+/‑ 201)
Heroin6	1,921 (+/‑ 267)	1,138 (+/‑ 104)	1,289 (+/‑ 72)	1,421 (+/‑ 204)	1,154 (+/‑ 271)	989 (+/‑ 74)

Notes:

1. Estimates are based on a single 7-day wastewater sample collected during the sampling dates shown. The 7 days where sampling took place varied across years.
2. Figures in brackets show the standard error, indicating the uncertainty around the estimate.
3. Estimates are adjusted for retail purity using National Crime Agency data and do not represent national-scale consumption. Estimates represent the volume of the street drug consumed and not the pure drug.
4. Estimates for 2021 to 2024 are from WAND phases 1 and 2 and are based on independent analysis by the Environmental Research Group at Imperial College London, incorporated into the methodology by Catalytic AI.
5. Estimates for 2025 and 2026 are from WAND phase 3 and are based on analysis by the consortium of Aqua Clear, Eurofins and Catalytic AI.
6. Heroin estimates are experimental and should be interpreted with caution. More detail is provided in the narrative below.

Overall, ketamine and MDMA showed the largest increases between 2021 and 2026, while heroin and amphetamine consumption were lower in 2026 than at the start of the time series. Cocaine remained the most consumed of the 6 key drugs throughout the period.

Comparisons between the January to April sampling periods in 2021 and 2026, and in 2025 and 2026, show:

• cocaine consumption is estimated to have increased by 17% between 2021 and 2026 but decreased by 7% between 2025 and 2026
• ketamine consumption is estimated to have increased by 194% between 2021 and 2026 but decreased by 11% between 2025 and 2026
• amphetamine consumption is estimated to have decreased by 55% between 2021 and 2026, and by 39% between 2025 and 2026
• methamphetamine consumption is estimated to have increased by 74% between 2021 and 2026, and by 8% between 2025 and 2026
• MDMA consumption is estimated to have increased by 248% between 2021 and 2026, and by 5% between 2025 and 2026
• heroin consumption is estimated to have decreased by 49% between 2021 and 2026 and by 14% between 2025 and 2026

Consistency of detections varied between substances. Cocaine and its primary metabolite, benzoylecgonine, were detected at all wastewater sites and in almost all samples collected during the early 2026 trend analysis sampling window. In contrast, 6-MAM, the analyte used to estimate heroin consumption, was detected at 14 of the 16 monitored sites and in 53% of samples. This lower detection frequency contributes to greater uncertainty in estimates of heroin consumption.

Heroin estimates should be interpreted with caution. The methodology used to estimate heroin consumption is currently more uncertain than for other substances monitored by WAND. This is because 6-MAM degrades relatively quickly in the sewer network and appears to respond differently to changes in wastewater flow and rainfall than other drugs. It was also detected inconsistently and often at low concentrations. The estimates presented in this report should therefore be regarded as experimental and subject to a greater degree of uncertainty than estimates for other substances.

3. Regional levels of consumption

3.1 Overview

WAND phase 3 monitored drug consumption across 52 sites, covering 31% of the population in England (August 2024 to March 2026) and Scotland (August 2024 to October 2025). This section highlights regions and sites that stood out for relatively high or low estimated consumption of the 6 drugs monitored during WAND phase 3. Comparisons were made between sampled sites, both within and across regions.

Regional estimates are based on samples collected from a limited number of wastewater treatment plants within each region and may not reflect consumption patterns across all locations in that region. The findings should therefore be interpreted as showing where relatively high or low estimated consumption was observed among the sites sampled during WAND phase 3, rather than as a definitive assessment of drug consumption across an entire region.

3.2 Regional variation in estimated consumption

Table 2: Regions with the highest and lowest average estimated consumption of 6 key drugs during WAND phase 3, in sampling windows from August 2024 to March 2026 (based on milligrams per 1,000 people per day)

Drug	Region with high estimated consumption	Region with low estimated consumption
Cocaine benzoylecgonine	North East, Scotland, South West (specific site)	East Midlands, Yorkshire and The Humber, West Midlands (specific site)
Ketamine norketamine	East of England, North East (specific site), North West	North East (specific site), Scotland, West Midlands
Amphetamine	East of England, North West, Yorkshire and The Humber (specific site)	East of England (specific site), West Midlands, South West
Methamphetamine	London, South East, Yorkshire and The Humber (specific site)	No region was identified as having notably lower estimated consumption
MDMA	North West, London, South East (specific site)	East Midlands, West Midlands
Heroin 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM)	London (specific site), North East, Scotland	Not detected with enough consistency

The table shows the parent drug and, where relevant, the analyte used to estimate consumption. A region followed by a site name in brackets indicates that the site had a notably high or low estimated level of consumption compared with other sampled sites in the same region. A region name on its own indicates that high or low estimated consumption was observed more consistently across multiple sampled sites within that region. These comparisons describe the participating wastewater sites and should not be interpreted as definitive regional rankings.

Across the sites sampled during WAND phase 3, the North East and Scotland had comparatively high estimated consumption of cocaine. The North West had comparatively high estimated consumption of amphetamine and MDMA. Ketamine consumption was also relatively high in the North West and East of England. London and the South East had relatively high estimated consumption of methamphetamine, while estimated consumption tended to be lower in rural areas and smaller cities. Heroin estimates were comparatively high in the North East and Scotland.

4. Additional drugs tested

4.1. Overview

In addition to the 6 key drugs included in the trend analysis and regional estimates, WAND phase 3 monitored 18 additional drugs of interest, including synthetic opioids and other substances. This section summarises where these drugs were detected during WAND phase 3 and the testing cycles in which detections occurred.

Many of these substances are highly potent and are typically consumed in very small quantities, making them more difficult to detect reliably in wastewater samples. A detection indicates that a substance was present in wastewater at the time of sampling and may provide evidence of its presence in a particular area. However, detections do not indicate how many people used a substance or how much was consumed.

The absence of a detection does not necessarily indicate the absence of use. Some substances may be present at concentrations below the analytical limit of detection and therefore cannot be identified reliably in wastewater samples. These findings should therefore be interpreted alongside other evidence sources, such as forensic testing, drug seizures, law enforcement intelligence and wider monitoring data such as drug-related deaths and hospital admissions data.

4.2 Detection by region

Table 3: Additional drugs detected during WAND phase 3, by region

Substance	Common street names / aliases reported	North East	North West	Yorkshire and the Humber	East Midlands	West Midlands	East of England	London	South East	South West	Scotland
4-Hydroxynitazene	No established UK street name.
5-Aminoisotonitazene	No established UK street name. Metabolite of a nitazene.	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
alpha-Hydroxyalprazolam	No established UK street name. Metabolite of alprazolam (Xanax).			x
alpha-Hydroxybromazolam	No established UK street name. Metabolite of bromazolam.										x
alpha-Hydroxyetizolam	No established UK street name. Metabolite of etizolam.
Diazepam	Valium, Vallies, Blues, V’s, Benzos, Tranks/Tranqs, Scoobies, Eggs.	x		x		x	x			x	x
Gabapentin	Gabbies, Johnnies.	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Isotonitazene	ISO, Toni.		x
Metodesnitazene	No established UK street name. Metabolite of a nitazene.
N-desethyl Metonitazene	No established UK street name. Metabolite of a nitazene.
N-desethyl Protonitazene	No established UK street name. Metabolite of a nitazene.
Nordiazepam	No established UK street name. Metabolite of diazepam.	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Norfentanyl	No established UK street name. Metabolite of fentanyl.	x		x		x	x		x	x
N-Pyrrolidino Etonitazene	No established UK street name. Metabolite of a nitazene.
N-Pyrrolidino Protonitazene	No established UK street name. Metabolite of a nitazene.
Pregabalin	No established UK street name.	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Temazepam	Jellies, Jellys, Eggs, Green Eggs, Rugby Balls, Tems.	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Xylazine	No established UK street name.									x

An ‘x’ indicates that the substance was detected at least once in that region during WAND phase 3. The accompanying ‘Wastewater Analysis for Narcotics Detection (WAND) Programme: additional drugs detected data tables, August 2024 to March 2026’ are available, providing details of the testing cycles in which each drug was tested and whether it was detected in each region.

4.3 Additional drugs tested for

The 18 additional drugs monitored during WAND phase 3 were not included in every testing cycle. However, several substances, including gabapentin, pregabalin, temazepam, and nordiazepam, were detected consistently across all regions and most testing cycles in which they were tested. Norfentanyl, diazepam, and xylazine were detected less frequently and across a smaller number of regions and testing cycles. Nitazene detections were rare and sporadic during WAND phase 3. Most nitazenes were not detected, although 5-aminoisotonitazene was detected across multiple regions during 2 testing cycles. Many of the substances included in the monitoring panel are highly potent and may be consumed in very small quantities, making them more difficult to detect reliably in wastewater samples. These findings indicate where substances were detected during WAND phase 3 but should not be interpreted as estimates of consumption or prevalence.

5. Current programme

WAND phase 4 began in April 2026 and operates at a reduced scale compared with phase 3. Sampling takes place quarterly at 16 sites in England. The 16 sites retained for phase 4 have been monitored consistently throughout the WAND programme, allowing changes in consumption to continue to be tracked on a like-for-like basis. The WAND programme continues to monitor cocaine, ketamine, amphetamine, methamphetamine and heroin. It also tests for the presence or absence of 5-aminoisotonitazene and mephedrone (4-MMC). MDMA and routine monitoring of other substances are not included in WAND phase 4.

Annex A: Wastewater Analysis for Narcotics Detection (WAND) Phase 4 Methodology

This Annex covers the methodological changes introduced in WAND phase 4. For full details of the methodology, including methods used in previous WAND phases, see: Wastewater analysis: measuring drug consumption.

The WAND programme estimates drug consumption by measuring the amount of drugs in wastewater. When drugs are consumed, some are excreted unchanged, while others are broken down by the body into substances known as metabolites. The drug itself or its metabolites are then excreted and enter the sewer network. The WAND programme collects samples from wastewater treatment plants and analyses them in a laboratory. What is analysed in the laboratory is the analyte, which can be the drug itself or a metabolite. These analytes are used to estimate levels of drug consumption within the population served by each site.

Phase 4 of the WAND programme monitors 16 sites in England. These sites have been sampled consistently throughout the programme, allowing changes in estimated consumption to be tracked over time on a like-for-like basis.

Table 4: Drugs tested and their analytes

Drug	Analyte
Cocaine	Benzoylecgonine (BZE), cocaine and cocaethylene (a metabolite formed when cocaine and alcohol are consumed together)
Ketamine	Norketamine and ketamine
Amphetamine	Amphetamine
Methamphetamine	Methamphetamine
MDMA	MDMA will not be tested in WAND phase 4
Heroin	6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM)
5-aminoisotonitazene	5-aminoisotonitazene
Mephedrone (4-MMC)	Mephedrone