Research and analysis

Rough Sleeping Questionnaire 2025: Headline Findings

Published 27 November 2025

Applies to England

1. Background

In 2025 the Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government (MHCLG) conducted research into people’s experiences of rough sleeping, interviewing a total of 1204 people, of whom 966 had slept rough in the 12 months before being surveyed (i.e. since Spring 2024).

Researchers at MHCLG, with input from survey experts, academics, government analysts, people with lived experience of sleeping rough, and frontline homelessness staff, first designed the ‘Rough Sleeping Questionnaire’ (RSQ) in 2018, with survey fieldwork conducted in 2019-20. The topics and questions were designed to provide a comprehensive understanding of respondents’ backgrounds, histories of homelessness, support needs, and public service use. This was then updated in 2024 before this research was conducted.

This report highlights the initial findings from the respondents who had recently slept rough (966 respondents). Some of these findings relate to a subset of these respondents, the number of which is indicated by n =  on the graphics.

Participation in the RSQ was voluntary and all answers are self-reported. Therefore, the sample may not be statistically representative of  the rough sleeping population. However, the demographic profile (see Section 2) was found to be similar that found in MHCLG’s most recent Rough Sleeping Snapshot in Autumn 2024.

The fieldwork was conducted in 32 areas, across all regions of England, facilitated through the support of local authority rough sleeping leads and local rough sleeping and homelessness services. These areas were selected to obtain various perspectives from a wide range of geographical locations and urban sizes.

Most questionnaires were completed in day centres or hostels. On average, each wave of the fieldwork took place over a two-week window, with researchers in the field throughout. Respondents had the option to complete the RSQ independently or assisted by a researcher. Most respondents completed the questionnaire with at least some input from interviewers.

2. Demographics

Most respondents identified as white (80%), heterosexual (92%), UK nationals (81%), and male (84%).

Figure 1: Key points from respondents who slept rough in the past 12 months (n = 966)

Figure 1 is an infographic displaying key demographic findings: 82% Male, 80% White, 81% UK nationals, 92% heterosexual, 17% in a relationship, 33% do not have children.

• The gender ratio is similar to that in the most recent Rough Sleeping Snapshot Statistics
• Around one in three (32%) respondents had a child aged under 18 years

Figure 2: Age and gender of respondents (n = 960)

Figure 2 is a bar chart showing the number of respondents by age group and gender. The were 151 women and 809 men in total.

• The average age of respondents was 42.6 years, with ages ranging from 18 to 76 years
• The age profile was similar between men (average 42.9 years) and women (41.4 years)

3. Experiences of rough sleeping

Homelessness accommodation: Hostel, emergency accommodation, refuge, other types of temporary accommodation arranged by the council, tent, caravan, car, squat, temporarily with friends, sofa surfing, rough sleeping, sleeping in transport or in a transport hub.

The respondents stayed in a wide variety of accommodation types prior to their last rough sleeping period, and left for a variety of reasons.

Figure 3: Where respondents stayed before last sleeping rough (n = 966)

Figure 3 is a bar chart showing the proportion of respondents that stayed in each accommodation type before their latest rough sleeping episode.

• 71% of respondents had slept rough in the last 3 months
• 40% had slept rough for more than 30 nights in the last 3 months

Figure 4: Most common reasons for sleeping rough after leaving prior accommodation (multiple choice, n = 966)

Figure 4 is a bar chart showing reasons respondents could not find somewhere to stay after leaving their last accommodation, and the percentages stated by the respondents.

• 31% last slept rough as they didn’t know where to find accommodation or go for help
• 28% last slept rough as there was no homeless accommodation available in the local area

4. Experiences of homelessness

In addition to rough sleeping, most respondents have experienced other types of homelessness and left settled accommodation for a range of reasons.

Figure 5: Types of homelessness ever experienced (multiple choice, n = 966)

Figure 5 is a bar chart showing different homelessness types and the percentage of respondents who said they had experienced this.

• Three quarters (74%) were homeless last night
• One in three (35%) had been homeless for over 5 years across their lifetime and one in five (19%) had experienced homelessness for over 10 years.

Figure 6: Reasons for leaving last settled accommodation (multiple choice, n = 412)

Figure 6 is a bar chart showing reasons for leaving their last settled accommodation, and the percentages stated by the respondents.

• Among those who specified a reason for leaving their last settled long-term accommodation (n = 412), around one quarter (23%) reported problems with affordability
• Average of 3.1 types of homelessness or homeless accommodation experiences per person

5. Support needs and vulnerabilities

Adverse school experience: Respondent reported they were permanently excluded, truanted regularly or left school before the age of 16.

Domestic abuse: Respondents were asked if any of the following had ever been done to them by a partner, ex-partner or household member since the age of 16:

• Prevented from having a fair share of the household money
• Stopped from seeing friends and relatives
• Repeatedly belittled
• Frightened or threatened in any way
• Used force

Offended in the past year: Respondent has been either cautioned, arrested or convicted of a crime in the previous 12 months.

Victim of crime: Respondents were asked if any of the following had happened to them in the past 6 months:

• Belongings being stolen or robbed
• Being physically assaulted, threatened or verbally abused
• Property or belongings being damaged deliberately

The question deliberately did not ask about sexual assault to avoid causing greater distress to respondents.

Almost all respondents reported at least one support need, with mental and physical health the most common.

Figure 7: Comparison of support needs reported by respondents (n = 966)

Figure 7 is a bar chart showing the support needs and the percentage of respondents identified.

There were a wide range of theme identified from the participants responses:

• Widespread Needs: 93% of respondents had more than one support need
• Mental and Physical Health Challenges: 83% reported problems with their mental health, which was the most common need. 80% also reported a current physical health issue
• High Prevalence of Adverse Life Experiences: 63% had experienced adverse schooling; 19% had a learning difficulty; 28% had an alcohol issue and 39% had a drug issue in the past year
• Exposure to Harm: 63% were victims of crime in the past 6 months and 10% were victims of domestic abuse.

Figure 8: Venn diagram of the overlapping needs in mental health, substance misuse, and adverse school experiences (n = 966)

Figure 8 is a  Venn diagram showing the percentage of respondents that had combinations of mental health, substance misuse and adverse school experience support needs.

• Over one-third (36%) of respondents had a current mental health issue, an adverse school experience and a substance misuse need in the past 12 months
• Just over half (55%) experienced both experienced adversity at school and had a current mental health issue
• Substance misuse needs alone were less prevalent, as only 2% had this without any other overlapping issue

Figure 9: Co-occurrence of support needs affecting people with experience of rough sleeping (n = 966)

Figure 9: A bar chart showing the number of respondents for various combinations of five support needs: Mental health issues, physical health issues, adverse school experience, victim of crime in past 6 months, drug misuse issue in past year.

• The most commonly reported combination of needs was mental health needs, adverse school experiences and being a recent victim of crime
• Mental health needs consistently appear in the most common overlaps, underscoring their central role in compounding vulnerability

6. Mental health

Mental health vulnerability is widespread, specifically depression and anxiety.

Figure 10: Most prevalent mental health conditions reported (n = 966)

Figure 10 is a bar chart showing the percentage of respondents that reported having each mental health condition.

• 83% of respondents reported a mental health vulnerability
• The majority of respondents reported suffering from depression (71%) and anxiety (65%)
• Around one in five (19%) reported having a learning difficulty (including learning disabilities), adding to the complexity of support needs
• Among those who specified a mental health condition (n = 803), most reported multiple conditions with an average of 3.7 per person

7. General and physical health

Musculoskeletal problems were most prevalent among the respondents, with low levels rating their health as good or very good.

Figure 11: Most prevalent physical health conditions reported (n = 966)

Figure 11 is a bar chart showing the percentage of respondents that reported having each physical health condition.

• Physical health issues were widespread, as 80% reported a long-standing physical impairment, illness, or disability
• Among those who specified a physical health condition (n = 782), most reported multiple conditions with an average of 4.4 per person
• Around half (49%) reported musculoskeletal issues and 40% had chest pain or breathing problems
• 38% had dental or mouth problems, and 26% had foot problems
• Only 29% reported that their general health was ‘Very Good’ or ‘Good’ compared to 82% self-reported health as ‘Very Good’ or ‘Good’ for the general English population

8. Substance misuse

Substance misuse was prevalent among the respondents, but only half received treatment in the past year.

Figure 12: Reported substances used in the past 3 months (n = 966)

Figure 12 is a bar chart showing the percentage of respondents that reported each type of drug used within the previous 3 months.

• 54% reported a substance (drugs or alcohol) misuse need within the past year.
• 39% had drug issues in the past year
• 28% had alcohol issues in the past year
• 13% were for both drug and alcohol

• 44% used cannabis, and 31% used crack cocaine in the past 3 months

• Of those with a substance misuse need (n = 520), only 52% received treatment in the past year
• Around one third (32%) had been refused or declined treatment, indicating barriers to access

9. Timing of support needs and rough sleeping

Development of support needs varies from person to person. For some they occur before rough sleeping started, whereas for others it was around the same time or afterwards.

Figure 13: Scatter graph showing first occurrences of rough sleeping and mental health issues (n = 708)

Figure 13 is a scatter graph showing the age when the respondent first slept rough (x-axis) against the age the respondent first had difficulties with their mental health (y-axis).

• Most respondents (n = 915) reported the age they started sleeping rough, of which 35% said they started sleeping rough by the age of 21
• Among those who reported both rough sleeping and mental health onset ages (n = 708), 78% experienced mental health issues before or at the same age as their first rough sleeping episode

Out of those who started rough sleeping by the age of 21 (n = 320):

• 51% reported mental health issues by the age of 16
• 36% reported drug issues by the age of 16
• 19% reported alcohol issues by the age of 16

10. Use of health services

A high proportion of respondents are registered with GPs and nearly half used A&E services but less than half received mental health treatment despite high need.

Figure 14: Stacked bar chart showing health service use (n = 966)

Figure 14 is a stacked bar chart showing the percentage of respondents that used each health service type. The bars are stacked by timing of usage.

• 89% of respondents were registered with a GP, indicating strong access to primary care
• Around half (49%) used A&E within the last year, suggesting a reliance on emergency services
• Despite high levels of mental health need (82%), only 13% of respondents stayed overnight for mental health within the last year
• Among those with a mental health vulnerability (n = 800) only 44% received treatment in the past year, indicating a gap between need and access to mental health services

11. Interactions with the Criminal Justice System

Around a third of respondents had contact with the Criminal Justice System in the past year, highlighting a strong overlap between sleeping rough and the justice system.

Figure 15: Interactions with the Criminal Justice System in the past year (n = 966)

Figure 15 is a bar chart showing criminal justice system interactions and the percentage of respondents who reported having these.

• 49% had served time in prison at some point in the past, but only 15% in the last year
• 35% were cautioned, arrested and/or convicted in the last year
• 62% reported no interaction with the criminal justice system in the last year, demonstrating that while involvement with the criminal justice system is common it is not universal

12. Sources of income

Respondents overwhelmingly rely on state support highlighting the economic vulnerability of those rough sleeping, with minimal access to paid work and a heavy dependence on Jobseeker’s Allowance, Housing Benefit and other disability-related support

Figure 16: Sources of income in the past 3 months (n = 966)

Figure 16 is a bar chart showing the percentage of respondents who reported each type of income source within the previous 3 months.

• There was a heavy dependence on state benefits, which were received by 84% of respondents in the past 3 months, compared to just 4% of the general population (aged 16–64) in England
• Only 5% reported income from paid work, indicating major barriers to entering or sustaining employment

Figure 17: Benefits claimed in the past 3 months (n = 797)

Figure 17 is a bar chart showing types of state benefits and the percentage of respondents who claimed them within the previous 3 months.

• Among those who specified types of benefit claimed (n = 797), around three quarters (76%) claimed Universal Credit or Jobseeker’s Allowance

Figure 18: Last period of past work (n = 718)

Figure 18 is a bar chart showing the time periods respondents were last employed in paid work and the percentage reported.

• Out of respondents who stated their last period of paid work (n = 718), 83% reported last being in paid work more than a year ago
• Only a negligible number reported having never worked
• Among responses from UK nationals (n = 595), paid work in the past 3 months was only 2%, whereas for non-UK nationals (n = 123) this was 11%

Figure 19: Word cloud of previous job titles (n = 710)

Figure 19 is a word cloud of the respondent’s previous job titles. The most popular words within the job titles included: warehouse, factory and construction.

• Previous job titles were given by 73% of the full sample and appeared to be mostly manual labour job types

13. Engaging with support

Respondents approached a range of services for help, but some had never approached their local authority.

Figure 20: Last approach to the local authority for help with homelessness (n = 966)

Figure 20 is a bar chart showing the time periods respondents last approached their local authority for help with homelessness and the percentage reported.

• Nearly half (45%) approached their local authority more than once in the last year for help with homelessness (or housing issues)
• Around one in five (21%) said they had never approached their local authority

Figure 21: Types of services engaged with while experiencing homelessness (n = 966)

Figure 21 is a bar chart showing types of organisations and the percentage of respondents who approached them at any point for housing problems or homelessness.

• Around three quarters (73%) engaged with homelessness organisations
• People also sought help from non-homelessness specific services including job centres (33%) and health professionals (30%)

14. Associated service use costs

Fiscal cost: Financial costs to the government, therefore these are additional government costs as opposed to wider social cost. Calculated as per person per year.

Complex needs: People comparable to those receiving Housing First support. They have been homeless for the majority of the last three months and have at least one of the following: anxiety or depression combined with a drug or alcohol issue; or a mental health need other than anxiety or depression.

People that slept rough, on average use more public services than the average individual. This was even greater for those identified as having complex needs.

Table 1: Breakdown of annual fiscal cost per person by public service area (n = 966)

Service	Weighted average fiscal cost
GP visits	£246
A&E visits	£811
Ambulance	£659
Hospital appointments	£378
Hospital stays	£1,466
Mental health appointments	£332
Mental health stays	£637
Substance treatment	£713
Arrests	£791
Prisons	£3,180
Rough sleeping services	£4,990
Total fiscal costs	£14,204

• The frequency of use for key public services was combined with unit cost data (inflated to 2024/25 prices) to establish the average cost per rough sleeper for a set of public services
• The most significant drivers of total cost were hospital stays, rough sleeping services and prisons. This is to be expected, given the significant unit costs of delivering these services