Policy paper

Water recycling for public water supply: Environment Agency position statement

Published 8 October 2025

Applies to England

1. Purpose

This statement sets out the Environment Agency’s position on water recycling as a public water supply option in England. We recognise the need for water recycling as part of a diverse range of supply and demand options to secure resilient water supplies for the future.

This position statement is for the water industry, regulators and environmental groups interested in future water security and the development of strategic water supplies. It focuses on why this type of option should be considered by water companies and the Environment Agency’s role in respect of relevant planning and permitting requirements.

This statement does not cover rainwater harvesting where rain is collected and stored for later use. It also does not cover greywater reuse system where non-toilet household wastewater is treated and reused.

2. What water recycling is

Water recycling uses treated wastewater as a source of public drinking water supply. Advanced treatment processes ensure safety and quality. There are 2 main types of water recycling: 

2.1 Direct recycling

Direct recycling treats wastewater and puts it directly into the drinking water supply. This is not currently used for drinking water supplies in the UK but is done successfully in other countries.

2.2 Indirect recycling

Indirect recycling treats wastewater and discharges it to an environmental buffer, such as a river, reservoir or underground aquifer. Water is then abstracted and treated further to drinking water standards. This is the approach used in England.

Water recycling can be implemented at various scales, from local schemes serving individual communities to large regional facilities.

3. Why water recycling is needed

Water recycling is needed to meet the mounting challenges facing our national water resources. The impacts of climate change, population growth and the need to increase resilience to drought mean that action is needed now. This will ensure resilient water supplies are available to meet the needs of all users in the future.

Part of that action is looking at new or alternative ways to increase water supplies, with water recycling being one possible option. The national framework for water resources, published in June 2025, reported on pressures faced by the water supply system in England. It detailed the significant future supply deficit likely to occur without intervention.

This analysis is supported by studies such as the National Infrastructure Commission’s preparing for a drier future (2018) and Water UK’s water resources long-term planning framework (2016). These studies all recommend increasing the future resilience of water supplies, through investment in both demand management and new supply options. 

4. Benefits of water recycling

Water recycling provides many benefits, including:

• increased resilience to drought by providing reliable supplies that are less vulnerable to weather patterns
• complementing or providing an alternative to large-scale infrastructure developments, such as reservoirs and desalination schemes
• maximising water available for public water supply, particularly where there are abstraction pressures on other sources or water is scarce, or both
• diversifying the water resources available and providing a resilient source
• being cost effective and avoid potential environmental damage that may occur at new sources of groundwater and surface water supply
• being local and scalable that can be tailored to local needs and expanded as required
• improving biodiversity through the restoration or creation of wetlands
• providing industrial supply options that improve business resilience whilst reducing demands on potable supply systems (drinking water that meets safety standards)

5. The Environment Agency’s position on water recycling

The Environment Agency supports the development of resilient supplies of water, part of which is looking at alternative options to meet future demands. We believe water recycling can play an effective and increasingly important role in securing water supplies. It enables water companies to maximise their available resources. We encourage water recycling to be considered as part of a diverse range of supply and demand solutions. 

Water companies may need to include water recycling as an option in their water resource management plans (WRMP) to increase resilience. This is particularly relevant where other options are limited and locations are suitable. We are aware that several water recycling scheme proposals are being developed. Water companies must demonstrate in their WRMPs how they could secure water supplies sustainably using water recycling schemes. We expect them to consider demand management and other supply options. 

We believe that water recycling schemes should play a larger role in our future national water supplies, provided mitigation measures are in place. All schemes are expected to secure permit conditions to protect and enhance the environment, plus proper safeguards for human health. 

6. How water recycling relates to the Environment Agency’s role

The Environment Agency has many roles in supporting and regulating water recycling schemes, from strategic planning through to operational delivery. Our involvement spans the entire development process, ensuring schemes meet environmental standards whilst contributing to secure water supplies.

6.1 As a regulator and statutory consultee

The Environment Agency has several roles within the water resource planning process. Within our statutory duty to manage water resources and protect the environment, we aim to make sure there is enough water for society, the environment and the economy.

We are a statutory consultee in the water company WRMP process and review these plans. These set out how water companies will meet demand for the next 25 years or more. We ensure water companies follow the water resource planning guideline (WRPG) and use relevant and appropriate methodologies and modelling to support these plans. We also review the non-statutory regional water resource plans produced by five regional water resource groups. 

We are also a statutory consultee of the planning process when a scheme applies for either a development consent order or local planning consent. As the regulator, we decide upon any environmental permit applications, including discharge and abstraction permits. These permits outline environmental requirements that schemes must meet, and where possible, provide environmental enhancement. 

6.2 As part of our strategic water resource management responsibilities

We work closely with water companies through the development of water recycling scheme proposals, ensuring that environmental assessments are appropriate. We also check that environmental impacts can be mitigated and that additional benefits for people and the environment can be achieved as part of the scheme, where possible. 

Several proposals for water recycling schemes are being progressed through the Regulators Alliance for Progressing Infrastructure Delivery (RAPID). This is made up of the Environment Agency, Ofwat and the Drinking Water Inspectorate. Through RAPID we have a role in overseeing the delivery of selected strategic water resource options, such as water recycling.

6.3 As an advisor

We provide advice to government on the content of WRMPs before the Secretary of State decided whether to direct water companies to publish their final WRMP.

7. Water recycling schemes in England

7.1 Current operations

The Langford water recycling scheme, operated by Essex and Suffolk Water, is the only operational water recycling facility in England. This indirect water recycling facility, which opened in 2002, uses wastewater discharged to the River Chelmer that would have previously been discharged into the sea. The treated water is then abstracted downstream and further treated for potable water supply. The scheme primarily operates during low flow periods when it can provide up to 70% of the River Chelmer’s flow. 

7.2 Future developments

Several water recycling schemes are proposed in the developing water resource management plans (WRMP24) and regional plans. The strategic resource options (SROs) being progressed through the RAPID gated process. The majority of these are in the east and south-east of England.

8. International experience with water recycling

Water recycling is successfully implemented worldwide, showing its viability as a water supply solution.

Europe has one advanced water recycling scheme which is in Belgium, operating since 2002. It uses indirect recycling to supplement drinking water supplies by aquifer recharge. Water recycling and reuse schemes are used extensively across Europe for non-drinking purposes, mainly agricultural irrigation.

The United States has the largest number of water recycling projects globally, using both direct and indirect approaches. Development is support by policies and regulations designed to protect public health and the environment.

Australia has large scale implementation, with Perth using advanced water recycling for both drinking (through groundwater recharge) and non-drinking purposes. The city plans to recycle 30% of its wastewater by 2030.

Singapore began producing NEWater (recycled water) in 2003 as part of a strategy to diversify water resources. Recycled water meets around 40% of the daily water needs. This is primarily supplied for non-domestic industrial and cooling purposes, but they supplement reservoirs and treat the water for drinking during dry months.

Namibia provides the longest running example of direct water recycling. Windhoek successfully using direct recycling for drinking water since 1968, demonstrating the long-term viability of this approach.

9. Addressing concerns about water recycling

Water recycling is now a feasible alternative supply option, supported by stringent regulations, improved technology, and more reliable monitoring and control systems. Potential concerns related to water recycling can be overcome with appropriate planning and mitigation.

Environmental impact assessments (EIA) are required for all water recycling proposals to assess flow and water quality impacts and define mitigation measures. Treatment design and discharges will need to meet environmental discharge standards to obtain the required permits. In many cases, the recycling schemes operate to higher modern discharge standards than previously in place, potentially improving water discharge quality.

Public health protection is ensured through stringent regulations governing potable water supply (overseen by the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI)). Risks are managed through continuous, reliable monitoring, and ongoing research into optimal management and treatment technologies. 

Public acceptance can be achieved through clear communication and transparency and education about treatment process and risk management. The DWI’s 2022 report public perception of water recycling for drinking water use reviews public perceptions of water recycling and provides recommendations for public engagement. 

Energy and carbon considerations are significant due to energy intensive treatment processes, such as reverse osmosis. Developing schemes should demonstrate energy efficiency and renewable energy use. However, energy and carbon cost cannot justify designs that fail to meet required environmental discharge standards, as such proposals will not get required permits. 

Combined sewer overflows (CSOs) are sometimes confused with water recycling in the news, but CSOs are entirely separate from planned indirect water recycling schemes. They do not affect their operation or safety.

10. Contact the Environment Agency

General enquiries

National Customer Contact Centre
PO Box 544
Rotherham
S60 1BY

Email enquiries@environment-agency.gov.uk

Telephone 03708 506 506

Telephone from outside the UK (Monday to Friday, 8am to 6pm GMT) +44 (0) 114 282 5312

Monday to Friday, 8am to 6pm.