Research and analysis

Theory of Change- DCMS contribution to the opportunity mission

Published 10 July 2025

Summary 

Context and purpose 

‘Break Down Barriers to Opportunity’ (the Opportunity Mission) is one of five core missions of the UK government. These collectively represent the government’s core areas of focus and visions for social and economic change to bring together government departments and guide policymaking. The Opportunity Mission aims to improve social and income mobility across the UK, with a focus on interventions across the policy landscape for children and young people, ranging from support for parents and early years initiatives to the role of further and higher education in enhancing young people’s opportunities. The mission has 4 key pillars:

Best start in life (Pillar 1)

• More children from disadvantaged backgrounds reaching a good level of development.
• Strategic objective: Significantly improve child development at age 5, focusing on the percentage of children reaching a good level of development against the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) early learning goals. 

Every child achieving and thriving (Pillar 2)

• More children from disadvantaged backgrounds achieving good outcomes in schools.
• Strategic objective: Raise attainment for all children and young people, particularly the most disadvantaged, and ensure they have the knowledge, skills and support to thrive, focusing on young people’s Attainment 8 score and the percentage of secondary pupils reporting feeling they belong at school every day/most days.

Skills for opportunity and growth (Pillar 3)

• More children from disadvantaged backgrounds achieving good post-16 outcomes.
• Strategic objective: Increase the proportion of young people progressing to good employment, education or training, focusing on the percentage of young people aged 16-24 in employment, education, or training.

Building family security (Pillar 4)

• Ensuring family safety and security and removing the underlying barriers to opportunity.
• Strategic objective: Keep children safe, tackle child poverty and help those in the care system.

The Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) plays a key role in the Opportunity Mission given its responsibility for: culture and the creative industries; sport and physical activity; out-of-school youth services; the youth workforce; and local authorities’ statutory duty for youth services. However, to date, there has not been a cohesive examination of how programmes and initiatives in these sectors contribute to the mission.

DCMS therefore commissioned Ipsos to identify how policies and programmes in DCMS’s sectors support the mission. To achieve this, we conducted a literature review to understand how programmes in these sectors lead to outcomes that support opportunity, such as the development of confidence and skills. Ipsos then analysed the evidence to identify the pathways to explain how participation in programmes support opportunity. 

The output of this work is a Theory of Change that articulates an evidence-based narrative for how interventions across the DCMS sectors can support the mission, mapping the ‘missing middle’ between policies and their target impacts where assumptions might otherwise be made about how a policy or programme works. This can inform strategic policy development and further analysis and underpin engagement within and outside the government. 

The DCMS sector Theory of Change for the Opportunity Mission 

A theory of change explains how the activities undertaken by an intervention contribute to a chain of results that lead to the intended or observed impacts. The Theory of Change developed through this review is presented in Figure 1.1 below. It focuses on the core components and pathways of change between policies and programmes in DCMS sectors and the objectives of the Opportunity Mission. 

This is achieved by identifying and mapping the journey of a programme or policy across 5 steps: 

1. Inputs: The resources available to tackle a problem (discussed in detail in Section 4.3).

2. Activities: What is done with those resources (discussed in detail in Section 4.5).

3. Outputs: The direct, often immediate, and typically measurable results of the activities (discussed in detail in Section 4.6).

4. Outcomes: The medium- and long-term results that arise as a consequence of the combined outputs (discussed below and in detail in Section 4.7).

5. Impacts: The longer-term results that flow from the outcomes and typically represent significant social change (discussed below and in detail in Section 4.9).

While mapping policies from inputs to impacts, the Theory of Change does not attempt to exhaustively map all contextual factors that influence the mission that are beyond DCMS’s control, but does assume that the necessary resources are available to deliver activities that will achieve the target outcomes.

DCMS sector participation outcomes

To understand the links between DCMS sector initiatives and the Opportunity Mission, our literature review focused predominantly on identifying and substantiating the medium- and long-term ‘outcomes’ of participation in initiatives for children and young people. In that context, this review identified robust evidence of 6 key outcome areas across the sectors which directly precede the target impacts of the Opportunity Mission. 

Health and wellbeing outcomes

Improved health, mental health and wellbeing which, when sustained into adulthood, support positive labour market outcomes and avoid the negative consequences of ill health. 

• This review found a strong link between participation in DCMS sectors and health and wellbeing, with the most robust evidence found in relation to youth activities.
• A wealth of studies show a range of health benefits of participation in sport and physical exercise, such as cognition, lifelong health, fitness and disease prevention.
• There is strong evidence of the impact physical exercise can have on wellbeing and mental health; some studies suggest that this is a product of improving physical health, for example by reducing BMI, which in turn supports mental wellbeing.
• For culture initiatives, there is some strong evidence across wellbeing and health; however, this review identified no direct links to specific mental health conditions.
• This review identified only one study showing a link between participation and loneliness, representing a gap in the evidence base.

Education outcomes

Improved school attendance, educational attainment and higher education progression, directly supporting the Opportunity Mission pillar of helping every child to achieve and thrive at school. 

• This review found a strong link between participation in DCMS sectors and education outcomes, albeit with variation between sectors, with the strongest link found with sport and physical activity.
• Cultural activities are strongly associated with improvements in literacy and numeracy, particularly in school-aged children. 
• Sports programmes have a strong evidence base for improving school attendance and engagement, which in turn boosts academic performance. 
• Youth programmes show significant evidence in fostering educational aspirations and career readiness, with evidence relating youth programmes to improvements in GCSE outcomes. Further exploring the link between GCSE results and cultural participation and physical exercise could be valuable.

Individual skills and knowledge outcomes

Improved cognitive skills, creativity and soft skills such as communication, teamwork, organisation and leadership, directly supporting the Opportunity Mission pillar of building skills for opportunity and growth. 

• This review found a strong link between participation in DCMS sectors and individual skills and knowledge outcomes, with robust evidence present for these outcomes across all three sectors.
• Cultural activities can enhance cognitive abilities, emotional regulation, and creativity. 
• Sports participation develops valuable life skills such as teamwork, communication, and self-discipline. 
• Youth programmes contribute to social-emotional learning, communication skills, and critical thinking. 
• Skills development supports improved educational and employment outcomes. Skills like teamwork and communication, while linked to educational success, also enhance civic engagement and social cohesion (discussed below and in section 9).

Attitudes, beliefs and values outcomes

Improved self-esteem, motivation and a sense of belonging amongst other values, which enable children and young people to thrive as adults.

• This review found a strong link between participation in DCMS sectors and attitudes, beliefs and values outcomes, though there is variation in relation to the specific attitudes, beliefs and values developed within this grouping.
• There is strong evidence which shows that participation in DCMS sector initiatives can be linked to improvements in self-esteem, a sense of belonging, increased motivation, and overall flourishing. 
• These positive attitudinal shifts are crucial for promoting wellbeing and resilience indirectly support the Opportunity Mission by empowering individuals to pursue their goals and contribute to society. 

Civic impact outcomes

Improved community cohesion and reduced antisocial behaviour, underpin the positive environments needed for social mobility and reduce the odds of harmful life developments associated with weak community cohesion, such as crime.

• This review found a moderate link between participation in DCMS sectors and civic impact outcomes, but a lower quantity of evidence to demonstrate those links relative to other outcomes.
• The evidence demonstrates a strong association with participation and enhanced communal ties and civic responsibility.
• These civic impacts align closely with the social benefits, by fostering community engagement and reducing anti-social behaviour, discussed in sections on employment and attitudes, demonstrating a comprehensive contribution to social capital. 
• Enhanced community cohesion can feed back into improving environments for employment and education

Employment outcomes

Improved employment prospects into adulthood, supporting future income and social mobility. 

• This review found a limited and weak directly causal link between participation in DCMS sectors and employment outcomes, with the most robust evidence found in relation to other (non-culture and non-sport) youth initiatives. For the purposes of this review, a weak directly causal link has been defined as an evidence base with a few studies, though some meet high levels of robustness.
• This review did not identify evidence of cultural activities supporting employment outcomes, which represents a key evidence gap. This does not, however, disprove an association; rather evidence may be more correlative and intuitive, such as cultural participation support future careers in the creative industries. 
• The development of individual skills through DCMS sector participation could be used to support the hypothesis that participation can enhance employability.

Pathways – how programmes support the mission

Across these outcomes, this review identified the strongest and greatest quantity of evidence in relation to DCMS sectors’ contribution to health and wellbeing (24 studies, of which 6 met the highest level of robustness), education (23 studies, of which 1 met the highest level of robustness) and skills and knowledge (22 studies, of which 1 met the highest level of robustness). The project identified comparatively few robust studies for the other outcome areas, though in many cases this is likely to reflect the difficulties of measuring and assessing these outcomes given their fundamentally long-term and often intangible nature. As such, the absence of evidence identified through this review does not necessarily disprove a link between DCMS sectors and those outcomes, but does reflect an evidence gap. 

While these outcomes are presented discretely, in practice, they are interconnected and often reinforce each other. The pathways between DCMS sector participation and outcomes are complex, with many serving as steps or building blocks towards longer-term impacts. Common pathways between DCMS sectors and outcomes that support the Opportunity Mission include the development of core competencies, building social connections and community engagement, and enhancing physical and mental wellbeing. These pathways can lead to multiple outcomes simultaneously: 

• The development of core competencies that support future opportunity such as literacy, critical thinking and social skills often occurs through direct skill acquisition, cognitive stimulation, social interaction, and structured learning environments. 
• Building social connections and community engagement is facilitated through shared experiences, community involvement, and the development of social networks. 
• Physical and mental well-being is enhanced through physical activity, stress reduction, self-expression, and achievements that boost self-esteem. 

Each DCMS sector also contributes uniquely towards key outcomes, and these sector-specific pathways complement the common pathways, offering a diverse range of benefits to participants. In each case, the crosscutting and sector-specific pathways allow for cumulative and compounding benefits over time. This reflects the importance of sustained participation in DCMS sector activities and the potential for feedback loops to develop throughout the DCMS sector landscape, through which activities can both directly and indirectly support opportunity. 

Impacts – links to the Opportunity Mission 

Flowing from the six outcomes of DCMS sector participation, this review investigated the impact the DCMS sectors have on the three core impacts which in turn feed through to the overarching objectives of the Opportunity Mission:

Enhanced individual thriving and improved educational and employment outcomes

The outcomes flowing from participation in DCMS sectors can support children and young people to become well-rounded adults with the skills and knowledge to thrive, and improved access to higher education and employment. Education outcomes are directly linked to the mission pillar of helping every child achieve and thrive at school, while skills, knowledge, and employment outcomes are tied to the pillar of building skills for opportunity and growth. This is the key impact feeding into the mission and the main driver of DCMS’ contribution to the mission.

Stronger, more cohesive communities.

Enhanced civic participation and improved social and community outcomes can lead to strong, interconnected communities with increased social capital, trust, and a sense of belonging. Outcomes related to attitudes, beliefs, values, and civic impacts link DCMS sector programmes to this impact. This indirectly supports the goal of helping children achieve and thrive at school and building skills for opportunity and growth by ensuring a positive environment for development.

Thriving cultural, sports and youth sectors.

The combined effects of interventions in DCMS sectors can drive both supply of and demand for high-quality programmes, resulting in a healthy, dynamic, and robust supporting external environment for DCMS sector participation. This includes well-maintained facilities, trained volunteers and staff, and strong demand for participation, which can drive a feedback loop reinforcing positive outcomes for individuals and communities.

When considered over the course of time, these impacts can be extrapolated further and lead to the overarching social change that is pursued by the Opportunity Mission, namely: 

• reduced generational income persistence– the extent to which the income of a parent and child from the same sociodemographic background remains consistent across generations
• upward income mobility for disadvantaged communities– the association between parents’ and adult children’s economic wellbeing with a focus on income and employment
• upward social mobility for disadvantaged communities – the association between parents’ and adult children’s economic wellbeing, distinct from income mobility as it may relate to other markers of economic status such as occupation and social class 

In general, the literature reviewed does not explicitly demonstrate a link between DCMS sector interventions and these far-reaching societal impacts. Instead, this review established a logical connection between the outcomes for children and young people of sustained participation in programmes and the target impacts that relate to conditions of childhood, educational opportunities, labour market opportunities, and social capital and connections, all of which are drivers of increased social mobility identified by the Social Mobility Commission. 

The Theory of Change demonstrates a direct link between DCMS sector participation and educational attendance and attainment, and positive employment outcomes, both of which directly support social mobility. The civic impact outcomes derived from participation can also support social capital and connections. Less directly, we may consider that outcomes in relation to health and wellbeing, and skills and knowledge facilitate employment opportunities by supporting the development of a healthy and skilled workforce.

DCMS Sector Theory of Change for the Opportunity Mission

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Policy implications 

This project focused on finding robust evidence of concrete outcomes linked to the target impacts of the Opportunity Mission. The Theory of Change developed through this review therefore provides an evidence-based narrative for how interventions across DCMS sectors can contribute to the Opportunity Mission when designed and delivered effectively by government, civil society and other local partners. 

Observing the links between the inputs and activities that DCMS can deploy and the outputs and outcomes that flow from them, we have identified several cross-cutting policy implications that DCMS and its partners may wish to consider for future policymaking. As cross-cutting observations derived from the overall outcomes of DCMS sector programmes, these implications would benefit from further research to apply a more granular, sector-specific lens to each. 

• Sustained participation is key. The benefits that flow from DCMS sector programmes, in any outcome area, cannot occur in the absence of sustained participation irrespective of whether the other foundations for the sector are in place. This points towards the need for policy to focus on encouraging sustained engagement through making the case for participation, engaging trusted adults and being responsive to the interests of individuals in specific local contexts, such that children and young people want to participate. Given this finding, policy makers may also wish to focus on early engagement of children and their trusted adults; participating from a younger age is likely to maximise the effectiveness of interventions. However, this review has not identified a clear view of how much participation is required to achieve the target outcomes. Further research and policymaking may wish to explore the ‘minimum dosage’ for DCMS sector programmes to achieve these outcomes. 

• Programmes across all three DCMS sectors can support the Opportunity Mission, often in similar ways. This review found that although each DCMS sector can and does contribute uniquely to the mission, there is greater commonality than difference across sectors, at least with respect to the core effects that participation can have. This suggests there is not a need to prioritise any one sector on an overarching basis in the context of the mission, but rather to focus on meeting local and group interests and addressing gaps in provision. Prioritising resources towards the DCMS sector that is likely to resonate most strongly with communities, based on their local context, could maximise the likelihood that a local service is available that children and young people would like to (and are able to) attend. Given there is some evidence of DCMS sector interventions having an outsized effect on disadvantaged and underserved populations focusing on engagement and participation may have greatest impact where targeted towards undeserved groups and areas which are less likely to be capturing these benefits in the absence of intervention. 
• A healthy supply of culture, sport and other youth programmes is a precondition for capturing the target outcomes.
• Any absence of provision can create structural barriers to participation within a local area which block the progression of the Theory of Change. Such an absence may also contribute to negative outcomes that conflict with the Opportunity Mission’s objectives. For instance, where young people spend time that they might otherwise be using to participate (e.g. in youth centres) in less constructive or even harmful ways.

Notwithstanding the strength of the pathways within the Theory of Change and the positive outcomes identified through the literature review, further research could explore the value for money of DCMS sector programmes to pursue goals related to the Opportunity Mission. From this review, it is unclear as to the extent to which value for money varies across programmes in different DCMS sectors and how value for money might compare against programmes in non-DCMS sectors that may target similar outcomes and impacts. More specific research into the value for money of DCMS sector initiatives (likely as part of programme monitoring and evaluation) in the context of the Opportunity Mission would be valuable.

Given the above, we consider that this review and the Theory of Change can be used by policy makers and key DCMS sector stakeholders in two main ways: programme development and analysis, and portfolio development and analysis.

At a programme level, individual interventions are likely to focus on specific activities and will therefore flow through the Theory of Change differently. For instance, initiatives to provide facilities in underserved areas will have a different pathway compared to communication campaigns to encourage participation. Recognising these differences can support effective programme development by allowing teams to consider their target impacts and to trace these through the Theory of Change, identifying measurable outputs and well-defined activities that support those aims.

At a portfolio level, this Theory of Change can be used as a tool to assess whether, across all programmes in the DCMS portfolio or within a DCMS sector (either in aggregate or in a local area), the interventions pursued align with each part of the model. This may reveal gaps within the policy response, such that a core enabler of change is missing, or an over-concentration of resource on certain activities to the detriment of others. Recognising how the overall portfolio of programmes aligns with the Theory of Change may therefore reinforce or support revision of DCMS’s strategic approach to policymaking and prioritisation of resource.

Introduction

Policy background and context 

‘Break Down Barriers to Opportunity’ (the Opportunity Mission) is one of five core missions of the UK government. The mission is based on the belief that an individual’s socioeconomic outcomes in life should be determined by their efforts and enterprise, rather than their background or family circumstances at the start of their life. The government considers that, too often, this is not the case; research indicates that a lack of upward intergenerational social mobility is a prevalent issue in the UK, and that a person’s income later in life can be predicted using their parent’s income, indicating limited upward income mobility. The Institute for Fiscal Studies, for instance, reports that social mobility in the UK continues to fall, with parental income and wealth becoming increasingly important in determining one’s lifetime income position, and upward mobility being more difficult for those from disadvantaged backgrounds (Institute of Fiscal Studies, 2023). 

The Opportunity Mission aims to support social and income mobility across the UK with a focus on interventions across the policy landscape for children and young people and their journey to adulthood, ranging from support for parents and a focus on early years to the role of further and higher education. As such, it aims to break the link between a child’s background and their future success, with a focus on 4 key areas or pillars:  

• Setting every child up for the best start in life

To significantly improve child development at the age of five, this pillar focuses on delivering accessible and integrated maternity, baby and family support, and high-quality early education and childcare. 

• Helping every child to achieve and thrive at school

To raise attainment for children and young people and ensure they have the knowledge, skills and support to thrive, which will lead to higher attainment levels, increased school belonging, and improved attendance,  this pillar focuses on school standards and building children’s wellbeing and belonging.

• Building skills for opportunity and growth

To increase the proportion of young people progressing to good employment, education or training, this pillar involves a focus on supporting skill development to enable young people to follow the pathway that is right for them, whether through apprenticeships, colleges or universities. 

• Building family security

To keep children safe, tackle child poverty and helping those in the care system, this pillar involves tackling the underlying structural barriers to children’s ability to learn and thrive. 

Given the prominent focus of education within the Opportunity Mission – from early years to further and higher education - this work is led by the Department for Education. However, other government departments’ policies significantly impact the mission. This includes the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), which has responsibility for culture and the creative industries, sport and physical activity, out-of-school youth services, the youth workforce and local authorities’ statutory duty for youth services. DCMS therefore has multiple points of contact with the Opportunity Mission; with responsibility for culture and sport, DCMS sectors feature heavily within educational settings and form part of extra-curricular education, and in leading work to support a healthy and thriving civil society, DCMS activities underpin a core enabler of societal cohesion, wellbeing and points of engagement with young people.  

Review objectives 

Culture and the creative industries, sport and physical activity, and other youth initiatives such as youth clubs or scouting can each play a critical role in the lives of children and young people. DCMS has collated evidence on how these sectors support positive outcomes, including health, wellbeing, and social and cognitive development. However, there has not been a cohesive and cross-cutting examination of how these sectors contribute towards the Opportunity Mission. There is therefore an evidence gap in relation to how DCMS sector interventions map onto the drivers and barriers of opportunity, social mobility, and income mobility, i.e. the mission. 

DCMS therefore commissioned Ipsos to: 

• identify what impact DCMS sector interventions have on the primary and intermediate outcomes for opportunity, and the extent to which this varies between sub-populations
• explore what DCMS sector interventions and programmes are likely to offer the best value for money when driving opportunity
• consider how DCMS sector interventions and programmes can best address barriers and build upon facilitators to enable opportunity
• consider the extent to which DCMS sector interventions can support (1) children and young people with special educational needs and disabilities; (2) women and girls; (3) ethnic minorities; (4) lower socioeconomic groups; and (5) disadvantaged regions 

To achieve these objectives, this review explored how DCMS sector interventions can directly or indirectly contribute to breaking down barriers to opportunity. The core output is an evidence-based Theory of Change, articulating how DCMS resources and activities lead to outcomes that underpin opportunity, supported by a literature review. 

These products can be used primarily by strategy development and central policy or analysis teams within DCMS (and across other government departments and DCMS stakeholders) to consider how the portfolio of policy initiatives contributes to the Opportunity Mission and communicate this externally – for instance by mapping current or planned initiatives against the Theory of Change to identify strengths and weaknesses in the portfolio, or considering the evidence across different outcome areas to identify areas for future policy intervention or research. These products can also be used by sector-specific teams and stakeholders to communicate how specific initiatives interact with the wider system of DCMS interests in the Opportunity Mission, trace their initiatives through the Theory of Change to ensure they logically meet their goals, identify measurable short-term outputs for monitoring and evaluation purposes, and review the available evidence to support policy design. 

In sum, this review can therefore: 

• help DCMS and DfE develop joined-up policy to support the mission, by setting out, at a high-level, where and how programmes in DCMS sectors support the mission
• improve policy design to support the mission, based on an understanding of what works to support the mission’s objectives in programmes in DCMS’s sectors -provide a framework to guide future research and evaluation, based on a consolidated view of the evidence on how DCMS sector interventions support the mission

This report begins with an outline of the methodology, setting out our approach to building a Theory of Change and gathering evidence and is explained in full detail in Annex B. The report then progresses in chapter four to a discussion of the Theory of Change itself, before moving to more detailed sections on how DCMS sector interventions contribute to opportunity outcomes (chapters five to ten). The report concludes with a consolidation of the findings and discussion of the policy implications of this review. 

Methodology 

Theories of Change 

A Theory of Change is a logical, evidence-based model that explains how a policy or intervention leads to desired outcomes and contributes to social or economic change. It achieves this by identifying and defining the relationships between inputs, activities, outputs, outcomes, and impacts. By exploring the relationships between an organisation’s planned activities and its end goals, the Theory of Change maps what is often referred to as the ‘missing middle’, where assumptions might otherwise be made about how a programme will deliver against its aims. 

Theories of Change are most often used to underpin monitoring and evaluation frameworks that assess an intervention’s effectiveness but can be very effective as a core method of developing and improving policies from the start. They can help policymakers define the policy problem, identify and explain their intervention logic, understand their assumptions, and communicate the vision and secure buy-in from key stakeholders. Developing a Theory of Change therefore ensures evidence-based policymaking, maximises the likelihood of an intervention delivering its target impacts, and supports consensus-building.

This review developed an overarching Theory of Change that articulates how DCMS sectors support the Opportunity Mission, underpinned by separate Theories of Change for each sector (as defined in section 3.2). The models were developed using a bottom-up approach, drawing on sector-specific evidence (covered in section 3.3) before assessing commonalities and differences and consolidating the models. 

The strategic-level Theory of Change is designed to support DCMS and its stakeholders across government and civil society, including those focused on specific sectors, by providing an overview of how DCMS sectors contribute to the mission. Considered alongside the sector-specific Theories of Change, it supports an understanding of how different sectors and interventions work together to reach the overarching goals. This approach provides a common language and framework for stakeholders to align efforts and identify synergies or gaps, and the visual nature of the Theory of Change makes it an effective communication tool for a wide range of audiences, facilitating strategic decision making and engagement. 

Scope

Gathering and analysing evidence to underpin a Theory of Change requires an understanding of its scope and the definition of the sectors under consideration. This review covers: 

• culture and creative industries programmes – in relation to culture, the arts, music and libraries; the creative industries; museums and cultural properties; and heritage sites
• sport and physical activity programmes –individual and team sports, and physical activity (on a voluntary or compulsory basis, inside or outside of educational settings)
• other youth programmes – other initiatives targeted at children and young people which are not predominantly focused on culture or sport (but may contain elements of them), such as youth clubs, mentoring schemes, youth achievement awards, scouting and uniformed youth initiatives or volunteering schemes

The review also considered DCMS’s work to strengthen the Civil Society sector, which supports charities and volunteer organisations. However, given that civil society delivers programmes across the DCMS sectors, this review does not treat civil society in the same way as the other DCMS sectors. Rather, it considers civil society as part of the underpinning infrastructure that enables the delivery of outcomes and impacts for the Opportunity Mission, with a strong Civil Society sector being a precondition for supporting the mission and Theory of Change. 

Literature review 

The Theory of Change is underpinned by a literature review that critically evaluated the evidence of the impact of DCMS sector interventions on the aims of the Opportunity Mission.

The review aimed to capture insights from a wide range of relevant initiatives within the DCMS sectors, regardless of their specific connection to DCMS. The search strategy included a thorough list of search terms (see Annex D) focused on DCMS sectors and specific activities within them, combined with outcome areas tied to the Opportunity Mission. It prioritised studies that directly examine the impacts of interventions or programmes on children and young people between 0-18 years of age, that measure outcomes at the individual, community or societal level, and were published within the last 15 years.

Initially, the literature search focused on ‘Civil Society and Youth’ as the third DCMS sector alongside culture and sport. However, it became clear that research related to civil society did not sufficiently capture the impact of other youth initiatives beyond culture and sport. Instead, research affirmed the supposition that civil society plays a fundamental structural role in relation to how interventions can contribute to the Opportunity Mission across all DCMS sectors. As a result, each sector-specific theory of change is based on the presence of a robust civil society to provide inputs and facilitate activities, but a separate Theory of Change for Civil Society programmes was not produced. A subsequent search strategy for ‘Youth’ initiatives used the same search terms as those for the other sectors but was extended to include longer phrases and articles identified in bibliographies, literature reviews, or in-text citations.

The literature search yielded 193 relevant articles, which were subsequently reviewed to assess their links to the Opportunity Mission outcomes, research design, programme details, long-term outcomes, analysis methods, and research quality. To build a robust evidence base and Theory of Change with research demonstrating more than a correlation between DCMS sector participation and the target outcomes, studies were then assessed using the Maryland Scientific Methods Scale (SMS). This ranks studies from 1 to 5 based on their design and ability to establish relationships between interventions and outcomes. Only research rated SMS Level 2 or higher was considered, as these studies use more rigorous designs such as controlling for confounding variables, using comparable control groups, or randomizing participants. This allows for stronger inferences to be made. While higher SMS levels provide greater evidence of causation, SMS Level 2 articles do not necessarily prove causation. The different SMS levels are explained in Annex B.

Other articles collated in the literature search, and those identified by DCMS, included evidence reviews. Articles of this nature do not meet the inclusion criteria detailed above, and, therefore, have not been included in the analysis. Despite remaining outside the scope of this report, evidence reviews remain seminal works within the field of study. 

For the culture sector, this includes research into the impact of the role of arts and culture in improving health and wellbeing, (DCMS, 2020; Fancourt and Finn, 2020). Discussion of the value of arts and culture more broadly is detailed in an evidence review carried out by the Arts Council (Arts Council England, 2014). Details of the barriers faced by lower socioeconomic groups, and how to alleviate these to encourage participation, can also be found in ‘What Works to increase equality of access to culture for lower socioeconomic groups’ (DCMS, 2023).

Evidence reviews detailing the impact of participation in sport and outcomes for children include an exploration of the associated mental health impacts (Biddle and Asare, 2011), the influence of movement skills and physical activity (Xin et al., 2020), and a review of sport participation and substance abuse (Clark et al., 2015).

Systematic reviews also contain detailed discussion of the relationship between physical activity and health in the early years (Timmon et al, 2011), personal and social development in physical education and sports (Opstoel et al, 2020), and a review of sport participation, and labour market outcomes (Lechner’s, 2015). Further detail of the impact of wider youth initiatives on outcomes can be found within the Youth Endowment Fund Toolkit, and the Education Endowment Foundation’s Early Years Toolkit. Other notable works to consider include ‘Youth Social Action: Rapid Evidence Assessment’ (DCMS 2021), and an exploration of the benefits of universal youth work (Brady, 2022). For further detail of the impact of engagement for young people from disadvantaged backgrounds specifically, see work conducted by the Welcome Trust (Atkinson and Mason, 2014).

This research assesses the robustness of the evidence based on both the number and quality of studies reviewed. This can be understood as follows:

• Weak evidence: a few studies, though some meet high levels of robustness. 
• Moderate evidence: a reasonable number of robust studies, a large proportion of which meet high levels of robustness.
• Strong evidence: a large number of robust studies, many of which meet the highest levels of robustness on the SMS scale. 

Workshops 

Two rounds of workshops were held with DCMS officials to explore implications, test pathways, and challenge the emerging findings of the review. The first round, in December 2024, jointly developed views on the Theory of Change and informed the literature review strategy. The second round, in March 2025, presented emerging findings and tested their implications.

Limitations 

This review aimed to comprehensively explore and evidence the overall impact of programmes in each DCMS sector on the outcomes linked to the Opportunity Mission. However, given the breadth of the sectors and mission, the literature search strategy and workshop engagement prioritized identifying key pathways from each sector to the mission outcomes over detailed comparisons of intervention types within and between sectors. Although outcomes across sectors can be grouped into common themes, each sector tends to influence different sub-groups or outcomes within those categories, with some overlap in their ultimate contribution to the Opportunity Mission. 

The review draws on more robust studies rated level 2 or higher on the Maryland SMS scale to inform the Theory of Change. However, an SMS Level of 2 does not necessarily prove causation. Some outcomes that underpin the Opportunity Mission but are inherently challenging to measure may also be less well-represented within these studies, but their absence or under-emphasis does not disprove an association between DCMS sector activities and those outcomes, definitively proving such links may be an area for further research.

A more detailed explanation of the methodology can be found in Annex B.

DCMS Sector Theory of Change 

Overview

The Opportunity Mission aims to break the link between a child’s background and their future success. Recognising the diverse range of influences on a child’s development and progression, this review has developed an overarching, strategic Theory of Change to understand and articulate how interventions and programmes in DCMS sectors support the mission’s aim. 

These programmes are mostly directly involved in supporting children and young people during their school years and developing skills for future opportunities. So, whilst DCMS has some involvement in early years development and family security (Pillars 1 and 4 of the mission), the Theory of Change focuses predominantly on Pillars 2 and 3 of Opportunity Mission pillars given their relevance to the DCMS sectors:

• Setting every child up for the best start in life

To significantly improve child development at the age of five, this pillar focuses on delivering accessible, integrated maternity, baby and family services, and high-quality early education and childcare. 

• Helping every child to achieve and thrive at school

Raising attainment for children and young people and ensuring they have the knowledge, skills and support to thrive. 

• Building skills for opportunity and growth

Increasing the proportion of young people progressing to good employment, education and training by supporting skill development.

• Building family security

To keep children safe, tackle child poverty and helping those in the care system, this pillar involves tackling the underlying barriers to children’s ability to learn and thrive. 

DCMS sectors are varied and distinct; cultural programmes in the arts may differ significantly from team sports programmes or youth scouting activities, for instance. We have therefore developed a Theory of Change to show each sector’s contribution to the Opportunity Mission, in addition to the overarching Theory of Change (see Annex A). However, we found far greater commonality than difference in the types of inputs, activities and outputs across the three sectors, and greater variation in the outcomes flowing from them. This section therefore outlines and explains an overarching Theory of Change to convey the common pathways and lessons for how DCMS sectors support the Opportunity Mission.

DCMS Sector Theory of Change for the Opportunity Mission

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Scope and assumptions

This Theory of Change focuses on the core components and pathways of change within programmes in DCMS sectors and the Opportunity Mission. In doing so, it explores the DCMS programme and sector activity that drives positive outcomes that have a positive influence on social mobility. 

In that context:  

• The Theory of Change does not attempt to exhaustively map the contextual factors or wider conditions that may influence the impact of DCMS sector programmes on the mission. Whilst wider determinants, such as the broader socioeconomic conditions and availability and quality of public services, are key determinants of social mobility, initiatives in DCMS sectors are not seeking to address these determinants directly. Therefore, these factors are not explicitly represented in the model. 

• However, the Theory of Change does consider how programmes attempt to mitigate or account for barriers to participation, such as the cost, which is essential for ensuring that programmes can support the Opportunity Mission. By including these considerations, the Theory of Change acknowledges the importance of programmes being designed and delivered in ways that recognise the key external factors that arise from the wider social mobility determinants, which may otherwise limit their impact. 

• The model assumes that the necessary resources are available to deliver the activities and achieve the desired outcomes. The Theory of Change identifies the types of resources required for programmes in DCMS sectors to support the mission, but it is not designed to appraise the scale or efficient use of these resources. 

• The Theory of Change assumes that if barriers to participation are addressed, individuals will engage in DCMS sector activities, and that this participation will be sustained over time, leading to the desired outcomes and impacts. However, it is important to recognise that removing barriers is a necessary but not sufficient condition for engagement. Other factors, such as individual motivation and the quality of the activities, also play a role in whether participation is maintained. 

Inputs 

Within the Theory of Change, the inputs are the resources that can be deployed to tackle a problem. Across DCMS sectors, this review identified 6 core inputs: 

1. Regulation: Requirements to mandate the delivery of DCMS sector interventions at a national, local or institutional (e.g. school) level. 

2. Funding: Financial investment from DCMS, government agencies and arm’s length bodies, charities or the private sector.

3. Facilities and spaces: Sites for participation across the DCMS sectors, such as playing fields or music practice rooms.

4. Information: Data about areas and groups in need (i.e. cold spots for culture), and information to underpin communication and campaigns.

5. Trusted adults: Individuals with strong social relationships with children and young people (such as parents, guardians or community leaders) who can encourage and support participation.

6. Workforce: Individuals with the skills and experience required to encourage children to participate and deliver activities, either on a paid or voluntary basis.

Across the Theory of Change, DCMS can leverage these inputs both directly and indirectly. Where used directly, DCMS can deliver activities itself on behalf of the government. However, this is only part of the full system reflected in this Theory of Change, as DCMS also delivers indirectly via partner organisations, including local government and civil society organisations.

In some cases, these inputs may be linked to and support one another. For instance, funding might be used to develop facilities and spaces, or information might be used to support a voluntary or paid workforce. Where this is the case, the use of one input to develop another is framed as an activity (see section 4.5); we may therefore observe feedback loops where our inputs underpin activities that in turn enhance other inputs. Nonetheless, we consider that each is a discrete input that can be leveraged independently or in conjunction with others. 

As previously discussed, civil society organisations are integral to the successful delivery of programmes that generate the target outcomes and impacts for the Opportunity Mission. While fostering a strong civil society is not featured as a specific activity within the Theory of Change, it is a vital precondition (alongside our assumptions) for effectively deploying inputs and activities across the DCMS sectors. In the context of strategic planning, government and civil society work together to ensure that community needs and local contexts are considered when developing programmes and allocating resources. This collaborative approach helps tailor interventions to specific areas, leveraging the insights and expertise of civil society organisations deeply embedded in the communities they serve.

Prior to the development and delivery of activities, DCMS and partner organisations across civil society may also set a strategic direction for the use of these inputs to maximise their impact. This may include: 

• targeting underserved groups within the UK population to improve representation and diversity within DCMS sectors - (1) children and young people with special educational needs and disabilities; (2) women and girls; (3) ethnic minorities; (4) lower socioeconomic groups; and (5) disadvantaged or deprived regions
• targeting and developing place-based solutions to tackle cold spots and underserved areas (i.e. areas in which there is a lower concentration of DCMS sector programmes relative to surrounding areas) -joining up funding streams and other inputs across government, civil society and the private sector

In line with our assumptions (Section 4.2), any absence of these inputs may inhibit DCMS’s ability to capture the target outcomes and impacts.

Barriers to engaging with DCMS sectors 

When considering how to deploy these inputs, this review has examined the barriers to children and young people engaging with DCMS sectors. Although the literature search that underpinned this review focused on programme outcomes, a key part of delivering these outcomes is to address barriers to engagement, especially for target groups. Barriers are therefore commonly cited in studies of DCMS sector programmes and were a prominent theme of our workshops. 

The barriers which prevent children and young people from engaging with culture and the creative industries, sport and physical activity or other youth initiatives vary. The degree to which they are experienced and the groups they affect, depend on the context.  However, they can be grouped into three broad categories: barriers related to resource and facilities, barriers related to an individual’s participation, and barriers related to strategy and planning. Given this categorisation and to support accessibility and understanding, we use these same groupings to delineate the activities within the Theory of Change.

Resource and facilities

Individuals may face barriers on account of the availability and accessibility of resources and facilities across the DCMS sectors. This primarily relates to an absence of resources and facilities nearby, or those resources and facilities being unfit for purpose. 

For instance, the location of resources (such as sports facilities) can make participation challenging by exacerbating issues associated with cost, time and motivation constraints. This limited access may be particularly present for those living in disadvantaged or deprived areas, where there may be fewer well-maintained facilities and resources (Somerset and Hoare, 2018; State of Life, 2024, Grima et al., 2017). 

Additionally, resources may be available nearby but be unfit for purpose for certain groups such as children and young people with special educational needs and disabilities. For example, spaces may not have ramp access for wheelchair users or may not provide sign language interpretation for performances or activities (Leahy and Ferri, 2024).  There can also be access differences facing women and girls in cases where specific programmes are delivered for boys and girls; for instance, sports teams and facilities for girls may receive less funding than those for boys (Somerset and Hoare,2018; Clark et al., 2015; Wile, 2021).

Resource related barriers may also refer to the availability, or lack thereof, of staff to support the delivery of activities. Where there are insufficient volunteers or paid professionals to facilitate delivery, the activities cannot go ahead.

Participation 

Even where well maintained resources exist locally, children and young people may face further barriers to engagement at the level of the individual participation, such as in relation to cost, time, motivation, interest and capability. 

The cost of participation can be a significant barrier to children and young people engaging with DCMS sectors. This can relate to the costs associated with participating (such as entrance fees), the cost of equipment needed to participate (such as sports kit) or indirect costs associated with participation (such as travel costs). These barriers may be more pronounced for children and young people from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and those in disadvantaged areas, given that budgetary constraints lead to a de-prioritisation of engagement with DCMS sectors (Somerset and Hoare,2018; Kwon et al., 2020; Nelson et al. 2006; State of Life, 2024; Grima et al., 2017). Another significant hurdle is a lack of time in both the child’s and parent’s schedules (Somerset and Hoare,2018).

Costs aside, individuals may not be motivated participate in DCMS sectors. In line with Ipsos’ previous work, which found that library non-use is due to perceptions of limited personal relevance (Ipsos, 2024), barriers may be the result of individuals perceptions, tastes and attitudes (Simmons, 2015). For instance, children and young people choose not to participate in culture because they believe that it is ‘not for them’. Similar barriers exist across the other DCMS sectors, such as children and young people lacking interest in sports, which can be (but is not necessarily always) more pronounced among women and girls (Somerset and Hoare, 2018). 

Local narratives and social contexts can also affect the desirability of participating in culture (Allen and Hollingsworth, 2013).  For example, individuals from deprived or rural regions are much less likely to pursue careers in the creative industries (Carey et al., 2021), and children from lower socioeconomic groups can lack confidence in their ability to participate in physical activity (State of Life, 2024). These barriers can be linked to capability issues; children and young people may experience barriers to access on account of their individual capabilities, where they do not possess the skills to partake in an activity.

Finally, individuals may experience barriers related to awareness, where one cannot get involved purely because they do not know which opportunities are available. This can be linked to parental engagement, a lack of which can act as a barrier to a child’s participation. Childhood participation is largely driven by encouragement from parents and trusted adults; if one’s parents choose not to expose them to culture in early life or encourage participation, children may fail to establish the foundations for future involvement (Elsley and McMellon, 2010). 

Strategy and planning

Other barriers to participation may be more structural, reflecting insufficient consideration for whether and how programme design and delivery consider specific underserved groups. This can include disadvantaged or minority populations. 

For example, those with disabilities can see their participation impeded due to insufficient laws and policies, that is, existing laws did not include sufficiently specific provisions to facilitate participation in arts and culture such as guaranteeing access to cultural content to persons with disabilities; inadequate services and/or funding; negative attitudes; lack of accessibility; and lack of involvement of persons with disabilities in cultural organisations (Leahy and Ferri, 2024). The structure and content of the school curriculum, such as more PE classes and outdoor lessons, can also affect levels of physical activity of children and young people (Kwon et al., 2020).

This therefore reflects a coalescence of factors in which the overarching structures that children and young people engage with, or that guide the development of programmes they could engage with, result in barriers to participation. These structural barriers can derive from, and can be turned around by, a variety of factors. One such factor is local engagement, where strong local leadership can catalyse DCMS sector participation, as demonstrated by engagement with DCMS officials during this review’s workshops, while an absence of local leadership due to competing priorities and lack of focus may hinder participation. Another factor is data access, where a lack of data might inhibit effective programme design and decision-making, while good data access can support informed and inclusive design. Highlighted the importance of collaboration and leadership and a local level as an enabler of DCMS sectors, with any absence of this local engagement creating a structural barrier that can affect other barriers discussed in this section. 

Finally, specifically in relation to the creative industries, economically disadvantaged groups have significantly fewer opportunities to pursue creative education opportunities at school leaving age. Given that higher education is the dominant route into working a job in the creative industries, it is unsurprising that disadvantaged groups are significantly underrepresented in the creative workforce (Obrien et al., 2016). Class based exclusion is more pronounced in the Creative Industries than other sectors of the economy, (Carey et al., 2021) with individuals from working class backgrounds being much less likely to pursue careers in the creative industries. Carey et al consider those from ‘working class’ backgrounds as those whose parents were employed in lower supervisory and technical occupations, routine or semi routine occupations, or who were long-term unemployed (NS-SEC 5, 6, 7 or 8). Student populations for the creative industries are less ethnically and socioeconomically diverse than the wider further education student population, and individuals from privileged backgrounds are twice as likely to secure a job in the creative industries than those from working class backgrounds (Carey et al., 2024). 

Activities 

The inputs in Theory of Change are channelled into activities – the policy programmes and specific interventions that are delivered. The categories of activity presented in this model have been identified through both the literature on DCMS sectors and engagement with policy and analytical leads across DCMS. These categories are grouped into themes linked to the barriers to participation (discussed in section 4.5), which recur across the sectors:

Resources and facilities 

Activities to ensure that the physical and operational conditions for participation are in place form the first category of activity.

• Subsidising facilities or equipment

Funding, in full or in part, and directing and overseeing the establishment of infrastructure for DCMS sector activities. The practical implementation of this will vary across sectors and may include, but is not limited to, sports centres, playing fields, sporting equipment, museums, libraries, musical instruments and facilities, or youth centres.

• Recruiting, training and encouraging volunteers

The direct engagement of a volunteer base to deliver programmes (or indirect support for others to do so). The skills required will vary by DCMS sector, though volunteer groups are likely to be a core delivery mechanism for all. 

• Recruiting, training and encouraging a paid workforce

As above, with employees as opposed to unpaid volunteers. 

Participation 

Activities to drive participation among children and young people by reinforcing the incentives to participate and removing or reducing the barriers to doing so are the second category of activity. These tackle the barriers to participation that might arise from a lack of awareness or interest in DCMS sector programmes.

• Reducing participation costs (i.e. subsidising the cost of activities)

Addressing the financial barriers to participation, such as through funding free attendance or voucher schemes for participation at a discount. The financial barriers that require mitigation will vary across DCMS sectors but may include entrance fees and tuition costs, with an overlap with the funding for equipment discussed in the previous section. 

• Increasing awareness and targeting delivery to underserved groups

Ensuring awareness of participation opportunities may be a primary hurdle to overcome to drive participation. This may include communication campaigns, targeted engagement and public guidance. However, any such initiatives should reflect the availability of opportunities within any given region and focus engagement on opportunities that are likely to be of interest to target groups. Specifically, in relation to sport and physical activity, this also includes increasing awareness about free physical activities and healthy habits (e.g. running, riding a bike).

• Making the case for participation

Driving participation in DCMS sectors requires interest as well as awareness from children and young people. There is, therefore, a separate category of activity to encourage participation. This can include leveraging role models, publicising the benefits of programmes, signposting career pathways to reinforce the value of participation, and harnessing network effects to create a self-reinforcing cycle of growth.

• Empowering adults to guide children and young people

Noting the dependence of children and young people on trusted adults (whether parents or otherwise) to shape and support their choices, engaging adults is a critical component of driving behaviour change and participation. 

Strategy and planning 

Activities to ensure that programmes meet the needs and interests of local systems and communities. This activity is important for identifying and tackling structural and societal barriers to participation in different places and for subpopulations.

• Empowering educational settings to offer extracurricular activities

The school system, at both primary and secondary levels, and other educational settings are a core route to engage children in DCMS sectors. Offering opportunities in an educational setting may therefore reduce the friction involved in participation (e.g. by reducing the logistical barriers to attendance) and support awareness raising. 

• Amending the curriculum and/or local authority requirements

Although most activities in this Theory of Change relate to voluntary participation, there is a role for mandated provision and/or participation within the overall system. Regulatory changes can drive greater provision of DCMS sector programmes – such as via curriculum changes within educational settings or introducing requirements for local authorities (e.g. a minimum number of community sport facilities per capita or requirements for urban planning to include open spaces, parks, trails to enable physical activity) – which may drive both compulsory and voluntary participation.

• Convening partners

Given the diversity of actors within DCMS sectors and influences on children and young people in local communities, coordination of these groups can support the development of local communities that value and support participation in DCMS sectors. This coordination may include pooling of funding to push towards common objectives. Partners involved may include government, local authorities, charities, schools, or private sector organisations.

• Adapting programmes to meet local needs and interests

A strong local focus and local leadership (e.g. identifying of local needs, providing data) on DCMS sector initiatives can ensure that the offer for cultural, sport and other youth programmes meets young people’s needs and interests and delivers in a way that is relevant and engaging for them.  

Outputs 

The activities presented in this Theory of Change lead, when accounting for our mechanisms, to a series of linked outputs – the direct and often immediate results of those activities which are the precursors to the intermediate and longer-term target impacts of the Opportunity Mission. 

In most cases these can be counted and measured. These outputs can be grouped in the same categories as our activities, though there is not always a direct one-to-one relationship between the phases of the Theory of Change; multiple activities can support the same output, and we may also observe mutually reinforcing feedback loops between outputs. 

Resources and facilities 

Through our activities to address resource and facilities barriers, we expect to observe: 

• a greater quantity of high-quality facilities and equipment- either through developing new facilities or renewing existing ones – with a particular focus on historically underserved areas
• increased volunteering capacity and capability
• covering both the absolute number of volunteers that are active across DCMS sectors, and their skills
• increased workforce capacity and capability- as above
• a greater quantity of high-quality activities- leveraging high-quality facilities and the increased number and skills of trained volunteers and staff, we would expect to see improved activities that meet the needs and interests of local children and young people.

Participation 

The outputs flowing from activities to address participation barriers sit at the centre of the Theory of Change and are the core pathway to the target impacts of the Opportunity Mission – both due to the absolute number of outputs and their value within the system. 

• More children and young people can afford to participate

A reduction in (or removal of) financial costs drives increased affordability.

• More children and young people are aware of participation opportunities

With a focus on the target subpopulations of this Theory of Change, activities to increase awareness (such as communications campaigns) and make the case for participation will drive knowledge of the opportunities across sectors.

• More children and young people participate in DCMS sector initiatives on a voluntary basis

A key difference is focused on the target subpopulations; this participation is the key output within the Theory of Change. It is the cumulative result of interventions across the different activity types and is supported by many of the other outputs – namely the availability of resources and facilities, and awareness and affordability. Additionally, increased participation should also mean a diversification of the experiences (for example different sports or physical activities done by a more diverse audience).

• More children and young people participate in DCMS sector initiatives on a compulsory basis

The activities to address participation, and strategy and planning barriers may also prompt compulsory participation across our target groups.

• More adult participation and engagement

Through initiatives to engage adults, we expect to increase adult participation, which in turn generates a feedback loop to participation among children and young people.

Strategy and planning 

Our activities within the strategy and planning category support the development of strong local networks and frameworks to underpin participation in DCMS sector initiatives. Through these activities, we expect to observe: 

• an improved use of existing government, local authority and civil society resources- by leveraging existing resources, such as those offered by educational settings (including but not limited to schools) and local authorities, these activities improve the efficiency of delivering sector initiatives and strengthen participation
• an improved use of private sector resources- as above, leveraging private funding and working with businesses to improve programme delivery and strengthen participation 
• the development of cohesive local plans- convening partners within a sector or region may lead to greater strategic planning and local/sectoral leadership. This can, in turn, support the development of other activities to align with local contexts and support participation outputs, with each actor within the system working towards common objectives and delivering complimentary (i.e. cohesive) programmes and services.

Outcomes 

The combined effects of the outputs within the Theory of Change, with a particular focus on the participation outputs, underpin the outcomes. These are the medium-term results of our activities, which flow directly as a consequence of the outputs, and directly precede the target impacts of the Opportunity Mission. 

Through the literature review and workshops with DCMS officials, this review has identified six core outcome areas that support the Opportunity Mission. As the critical component of the Theory of Change, each outcome area is discussed in detail in the sections that follow.

Health and wellbeing outcomes

• The literature across DCMS sectors identifies strong links between participation and positive health outcomes. This includes improved health, mental health and overall wellbeing over both the short and long term. Such improved health in children and young people, when sustained into adulthood, indirectly contributes to the target impacts of the Opportunity Mission by supporting positive labour market outcomes and avoiding the negative consequences of ill health. 

Education outcomes

• Participation in DCMS sector initiatives supports improved educational outcomes, with the literature demonstrating links between participation and improved school attendance, educational attainment and higher education progression. This directly supports the Opportunity Mission given the prominence of attendance and attainment in driving social mobility and supporting improved labour market outcomes.

Employment outcomes

• There is some evidence of participation in DCMS sector initiatives supporting improved employment outcomes into adulthood, for example links between participation and greater income and productivity, and while not evidenced by the literature, our other outcome areas may indirectly support improved labour market outcomes. 

Individual skills and knowledge outcomes

• Skill development is a core theme of the literature across DCMS sectors and a well evidenced outcome of participation. This includes the development of cognitive skills, creativity and soft skills such as communication, teamwork, organisation and leadership skills. These directly contribute to the target impacts of the Opportunity Mission by giving children and young people the tools for growth and the ability to capitalise on opportunities in education and the labour market. 

Attitudes, beliefs and values outcomes

• While challenging to measure, and less well defined across the literature, there is nonetheless evidence of the role of DCMS sector initiatives in driving positive attitudes. This includes improved self-esteem, motivation and a sense of belonging, amongst other attitudes, values and beliefs. As with skills and knowledge, these directly contribute to the Opportunity Mission by supporting children and young people to flourish and thrive into adulthood. 

Civic impact outcomes

• There is some evidence of participation in DCMS sector initiatives driving civic impacts such as improved community cohesion and reduced antisocial behaviour. This supports the Opportunity Mission by underpinning the positive environments required for social mobility and reduces the likelihood of negative life outcomes associated with a lack of community cohesion such as crime and anti-social behaviour which might otherwise perpetuate income persistence. 

Critically, these outcomes may not materialise to the same time horizons, and some may be much longer term than others. For instance, we would expect to see positive developments in relation to education – such as attendance and attainment at school – significantly sooner than employment outcomes. Equally, individual outcomes within a themed area may materialise at different times; we would not necessarily expect, for instance, all attitudes, beliefs and values associated with a DCMS sector programme to be developed simultaneously. However, given that they all flow from the direct outputs of DCMS sector programmes – namely, increased participation – they are grouped together as outcomes. 

While we have identified evidence of these outcome areas across each of the DCMS sectors, there is variation in the extent of that evidence. This review identified the strongest and greatest quantity of evidence in relation to DCMS sectors’ contribution to health and wellbeing (32 studies, of which 6 meet the highest level of robustness), education (24 studies, of which 3 meet the highest level of robustness), attitudes, beliefs and values (25 studies, of which 1 meets the highest level of robustness) and skills and knowledge (29 studies, of which 1 meets the highest level of robustness). The review identified comparatively fewer robust studies for the other outcome areas, though this is likely to reflect – at least in part – the difficulties of measuring and assessing these outcome areas given their fundamentally long-term and, in many cases, intangible nature. 

By way of illustration, Table 4.1 below demonstrates the number of sources identified that demonstrate a link between each outcome area, per DCMS sector. Table 4.2 demonstrates the relative robustness of those articles.

Summary of evidence strength

	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Other youth programmes	Other youth programmes
Outcome	SMS 2 to 4	SMS 5	SMS 2 to 4	SMS 5	SMS 2 to 4	SMS 5
Health and Wellbeing	4	0	20	0	2	6
Education	5	1	12	1	4	1
Skills and knowledge	5	1	19	0	4	0
Attitudes, beliefs and values	4	0	18	0	3	1
Civic impact	5	0	3	0	5	2
Employment	0	0	4	0	0	2

Breakdown of evidence strength

Table uses ‘The Maryland Scientific Methods Scale’ (SMS).

	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Other youth programmes	Other youth programmes	Other youth programmes	Other youth programmes
Outcome	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5
Health and Wellbeing	3	1	0	0	5	14	1	0	1	1	0	6
Education	2	3	0	1	3	6	3	1	0	3	1	1
Skills and Knowledge	2	3	0	1	4	13	2	0	1	3	0	0
Attitudes, beliefs and values	2	2	0	0	5	12	1	0	2	0	1	1
Civic impact	2	3	0	0	0	3	0	0	1	4	0	2
Employment	0	0	0	0	0	3	1	0	0	0	0	2

Pathways

The Theory of Change presented in Figure 4.1 provides a high-level overview of how DCMS sector participation contributes to the Opportunity Mission. However, the actual pathways between participation and outcomes are complex and interconnected. This section explores these pathways in more detail, highlighting common mechanisms across DCMS sectors and explaining how different outcomes relate to and reinforce each other.

Key Concepts 

Individual skills and knowledge, along with attitudes, beliefs, and values, often serve as interim steps or building blocks towards longer-term outcomes. These outcomes don’t always follow a linear path; instead, they interact and build upon each other over time.  For example, a young person participating in a local theatre group might develop communication skills and self-confidence (individual skills and attitudes). These, in turn, could lead to improved academic performance (education outcome) and eventually better employment prospects (employment outcome). Similarly, a child regularly participating in team sports might develop teamwork skills and a sense of belonging (individual skills and attitudes), which could contribute to improved mental health (health and wellbeing outcome) and increased community engagement (civic impact outcome). 

Health and wellbeing outcomes can act as enablers, supporting progress in other areas such as education and employment. For instance, improved physical fitness from regular sports participation could lead to better school attendance, which in turn supports educational attainment. The outcomes identified in this Theory of Change are not isolated, but rather reinforce each other. Improved individual skills can lead to better educational outcomes, which in turn can enhance employment prospects. Positive attitudes and values can contribute to civic engagement, which can further reinforce those attitudes and values. Better health and wellbeing can support educational attainment and employment, which can then contribute to improved health through better life circumstances. This interconnected nature means that the benefits of DCMS sector participation can accumulate and compound over time.

Common pathways across DCMS Sectors

Development of core competencies

Participation in DCMS sector activities often leads to the development of specific skills, cognitive enhancements, and social-emotional competencies. These developments can occur through various mechanisms:

• Direct skill acquisition: Engaging in specific activities develops related skills. For instance, playing a musical instrument enhances fine motor skills and auditory processing.
• Cognitive stimulation: Many DCMS activities challenge the brain in ways that promote cognitive development. This could involve problem solving in team sports or creative thinking in arts programmes.
• Social interaction: Most DCMS activities involve interacting with others, providing opportunities to develop social skills and emotional intelligence.
• Structured learning environments: Many programmes provide structured settings that foster discipline, goal setting, and perseverance.

These core competencies contribute directly to individual skills and knowledge outcomes, support educational outcomes, and in the longer term, can enhance employability and shape positive attitudes and values.

Building social connections and community engagement

• DCMS sector participation often fosters social connections and community engagement through:

• Shared experiences: Participating in group activities creates shared experiences that can form the basis of social bonds.
• Community involvement: Many DCMS activities are community-based, encouraging participants to engage with their local area.
• Development of social networks: Regular participation can lead to the formation of diverse social networks. *Fostering a sense of belonging: Being part of a team, group, or audience can create a sense of belonging to something larger than oneself.

These pathways primarily contribute to civic impact outcomes and shape attitudes, beliefs, and values. They can also support employment outcomes through networking and contribute to mental wellbeing through social support.

Enhancing physical and mental wellbeing

DCMS sector participation can enhance physical and mental wellbeing through:

• Physical activity: Particularly in sports, but also in some cultural activities like dance, direct physical benefits can accrue.
• Stress reduction: Many DCMS activities provide outlets for stress and opportunities for relaxation.
• Self-expression: Cultural and creative activities often provide channels for self-expression, which can support mental wellbeing. *Achievement and self-esteem: Mastering skills or achieving goals in any DCMS activity can boost self-esteem and overall wellbeing.

These pathways directly contribute to health and wellbeing outcomes. However, they also play a crucial role in enabling other outcomes by providing a foundation of good health and positive mental state that supports educational attainment, employment success, and civic engagement.

Sector Specific Pathways

While many pathways are common across DCMS sectors, each sector also contributes uniquely:

• Cultural activities uniquely foster creativity and aesthetic appreciation, which can enhance problem-solving skills applicable in various life domains. Engagement with the arts can develop specific cognitive abilities, such as spatial reasoning through music or visual perception through visual arts. These activities also often provide opportunities for self-expression and cultural understanding that may not be as prevalent in other sectors.
• Sports and physical activity have a direct and significant impact on physical health, which underpins many other outcomes. The regular physical exertion involved in sports can lead to improved cardiovascular health, better motor skills, and enhanced physical fitness. Team sports, in particular, offer unique opportunities for developing leadership skills and understanding group dynamics.
• Youth programs often provide structured mentoring and leadership opportunities, which can be particularly impactful for personal development and civic engagement. These programs may offer more targeted interventions for specific skills or outcomes, such as career readiness or community service. They can also provide safe spaces for young people to explore their identities and interests outside of formal educational settings.

Impacts

The cumulative effect of the activities, outputs and outcomes within the Theory of Change lead to our impacts – longer-term results that summarise significant social change. These are the ultimate results of the intervention which will contribute to the Opportunity Mission. 

Taking account of the 6 outcome areas identified – health and wellbeing; education; employment; individual skills and knowledge; attitudes, beliefs and values; and civic impacts - we identify 3 core impacts, which in turn feed through to the overarching objectives of the Opportunity Mission: 

• Enhanced individual thriving and improved educational and employment outcomes for individuals. 

• Developments across each outcome area support children and young people to develop into well-rounded adults with the skills and knowledge needed to thrive, and improved access to higher education and/or good employment opportunities. Outcomes in relation to education are clearly linked to the Opportunity Mission pillar of helping every child to achieve and thrive at school, given the identification of a pathway from DCMS sector participation to increased school attendance and attainment. Likewise, outcomes in relation to skills, knowledge and employment are tied to the mission pillar of building skills for opportunity and growth given the potential for DCMS sector participation to support skill development and future employment opportunities (albeit there is less research demonstrating the latter). This is the key impact that feeds into the Opportunity Mission. 

• Stronger, more cohesive communities. 
  • Enhanced civic participation and improved social and community outcomes support the development of strong, interconnected communities, with an increase in social capital, trust and a sense of belonging. The outcomes in relation to attitudes, beliefs and values, and civic impacts act as the link between DCMS sector programmes and this impact, which can in turn indirectly support with the aims of helping every child to achieve and thrive at school, and building skills for opportunity and growth, by ensuring a positive and favourable external environment that supports personal development.
• Thriving cultural, sports and youth sectors. 
  • Strong DCMS sectors emerge as a structural impact through the combined effects of the interventions, through which cultural, sport and other youth programmes are delivered in a healthy, dynamic and robust supporting environment. This includes having well maintained and effectively distributed facilities and resources, a sufficient supply of trained volunteers and staff, and a strong demand for DCMS sector participation from children and young people. This in turn can drive a feedback loop that reinforces further positive outcomes for individuals and communities. 

Extrapolated further, when considered over the course of time, these impacts subsequently lead to the overarching social change that is pursued by the Opportunity Mission, namely: 

• reduced generational income persistence– the extent to which a parent and child’s income from the same sociodemographic background remains consistent across generations
• upward income mobility for disadvantaged communities – the association between parents’ and adult children’s economic wellbeing with a focus on earned incomes and employment
• upward social mobility for disadvantaged communities – the association between parents’ and adult children’s economic wellbeing, distinct from income mobility as it may relate to other markets of economic status such as occupation and social class

These impacts have been identified by DCMS as the main targets for DCMS sector interventions in relation to the Opportunity Mission. However, in general, and perhaps unsurprisingly given these impacts are tied to the Opportunity Mission, the literature reviewed in this review does not explicitly demonstrate a link between DCMS sector interventions and these impacts. We must therefore establish a logical connection between the outcomes we have observed and these target impacts. 

Social and income mobility are complex concepts, though the literature surrounding these topics can support connecting them with the direct outcome areas of DCMS sector interventions. The Social Mobility Commission, the independent statutory body set up to monitor the progress made towards improving social mobility in the UK, identifies five themes that drive social mobility, detailed below in Table 4.3. 

Social Mobility Commission drivers of social mobility

Themes	Metrics
Conditions of childhood	Childhood poverty / distribution of parental education / distribution of parental occupation
Educational opportunities	Further education and training opportunities / availability of high-quality school education / access to higher education
Labour market opportunities	Vacancy rate / youth unemployment / type of employment opportunities for young people / labour market earnings of young people
Social capital and connections	Civic engagement / level of trust, fairness and helpfulness
Innovation and growth	Broadband speed / business expenditure on research and development / university research students

Mapping the outcome areas of our Theory of Change against the Social Mobility Commission’s view of the drivers of social mobility, we see that DCMS sector activities can make a tangible contribution to social mobility. As above, the Theory of Change demonstrates a direct link between DCMS sector participation and educational attendance and attainment, and positive employment outcomes, both of which can directly support social mobility. The civic impact outcomes derived from DCMS sector participation may also support with social capital and connections. Less directly, we may consider that outcomes in relation to health and wellbeing and skills and knowledge indirectly facilitate employment opportunities by supporting the development of a healthy and skilled workforce. 

Accordingly, while this review did not identify literature that makes direct links between DCMS sector interventions and income or social mobility, we judge that there is a logical connection between the outcomes flowing from DCMS sector interventions and the drivers of those target impacts of income and social mobility. 

Health and Wellbeing outcomes

Summary of findings

Evidence reviewed

• Moderately strong link between participation in DCMS sector programmes and health and wellbeing outcomes, with the strongest link found with sport and physical activity. 
• Based on 32 studies rated above SMS Level 2: Culture (4), Sport (20) and other Youth activities (8). 
• There are limited instances of SMS Level 5: studies into uniformed youth initiatives, self-care, and youth empowerment programmes. 

Key outcomes:

• Wellbeing [8 studies], health [14], mental health [9], and reduced loneliness [1]. 

Key findings 

• There is a wealth of studies showing the benefits of sport and physical exercise, these cover a range of types of health including cognition, lifelong health, fitness and disease prevention. 
• There is strong evidence of the impact physical exercise can have on wellbeing and mental health; some studies suggest that this is a product of improving physical health for example by reducing BMI supporting mental wellbeing. 
• For culture, there is some strong evidence across wellbeing and health however no direct links to mental health. 
• There is only one study showing a link between participation and loneliness which references youth self-care programmes and therefore represents a gap in the evidence base.

Overview

Across the literature identified through this review, research frequently finds evidence that health and wellbeing outcomes flow from participation in DCMS sector activities, with 32 studies rated SMS Level 2 or above demonstrating a link. There are limited instances of the most robust research – SMS Level 5 – demonstrating this link, though this may in part reflect the difficulties of conducting studies of this nature in DCMS sectors, particularly over the long-term, and we do not consider that this detracts from the connection between culture, sport and other youth initiatives and health and wellbeing.

The key outcomes identified within this category (discussed in detail below), which can accrue over the short, medium and long term because of participation, can be summarised as: 

• Wellbeing: Improved happiness, life satisfaction and quality of life (though definitions of wellbeing vary across the studies examined). 
• Health: General health over an individual’s life through participation as a child or young adult, including in relation to lowering the risk of long-term physical health conditions.
• Mental Health: Reduced risk of mental health problems such as anxiety and depression over the course of an individual’s life, and improved resilience.  
• Loneliness: Reduced levels of loneliness through participation in programmes. 

While we find evidence of each of these outcomes across the DCMS sectors when considered in aggregate – such that we consider that there is strong evidence of a link between DCMS sectors as a whole and health and wellbeing improvements - there is variation between sectors. Table 4.1 summarises this variation by assessing the quantity and relative strength of evidence.

Sections 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 discuss the detail of the evidence identified with respect to culture, sport and other youth initiatives. Drawing these findings together, we consider that: 

• There is strong evidence of improvements in wellbeing as an outcome of participation across all three sectors. Despite variations in the precise definition used by researchers, in all cases we find evidence of participation in DCMS sector programmes supporting greater happiness and life satisfaction. We find the greatest quantity of research demonstrating this link in relation to sport (4 studies rated SMS 2 or higher), closely followed by culture (3 studies), though the most robust evidence of a link to wellbeing can be found in other youth activities (specifically, mentoring), despite the quantity of research being limited.
• There is greater variation in the evidence identified across DCMS sectors in relation to other outcomes within the health and wellbeing category. This is largely driven by the relative absence of research into health and mental health outcomes beyond sport, where these links may be a more natural area to explore, rather than research testing but not finding links in other DCMS sectors. As such, an absence of research does not necessarily prove that these outcomes are not linked to DCMS sectors. 
• Unsurprisingly, the studies reviewed therefore indicate that improved health outcomes are most closely associated with participation in sports programmes (with 10 studies demonstrating a link, with the majority meeting SMS Level 3). While there is some evidence of health benefits flowing from cultural participation (1 study) this is significantly less prevalent and less robust than the evidence related to engagement with sport. As with wellbeing, we do find limited but very strong evidence linking other youth activities – namely play groups and cooking classes – and health.  
• Similarly, the studies reviewed indicate that improved mental health outcomes are also most clearly associated with participation in sports programmes (6 studies, including robust SMS Level 4 research). There is also robust research (including 2 SMS Level 5 studies) linking other youth activities, such as uniformed youth initiatives and youth empowerment programmes to mental health. We have not identified a robust link between cultural programmes and mental health, though this does not disprove an association, particularly given the likely overlap with wellbeing outcomes for which there is strong evidence. 
• There is limited evidence of the extent to which DCMS activities can tackle loneliness among children and young people, though one very strong study (SMS Level 5) indicates such a link with youth self-care programmes and, as with mental health, the potential overlap with wellbeing is such that an absence of research does not disprove this link. 
• The literature highlights several key mechanisms by which DCMS sector participation leads to improved health and wellbeing outcomes, which in turn underpin and enable intermediate and longer-term outcomes related to education, employment, and social mobility.
• One set of pathways works through direct physical and mental health benefits, particularly evident in sport and physical activity programmes. Regular engagement in physical activity has been shown to promote cognition, lifelong health, wellbeing, and fitness while limiting risk factors for various health conditions (Zhou et al., 2021). These health improvements provide a foundation for better educational engagement and performance, as well as long-term employability. For instance, the Build Our Kids Success (BOKS) programme demonstrated that before-school physical activities could lead to improvements in BMI and social-emotional wellness (Whooten et al., 2018), which can positively impact school readiness and engagement.
• A second set of pathways operates through the development of social and emotional competencies. Participation in cultural activities, particularly extracurricular arts, has been linked to improved emotional regulation and decreased externalizing behaviours (Fluharty et al., 2023). Similarly, sports participation has been associated with the development of mental toughness and self-efficacy, which in turn facilitates positive mental health (Denovan and Dagnall, 2023). These social-emotional competencies not only contribute to immediate wellbeing but also equip individuals with skills crucial for academic success, future employment, and navigating social environments.
• The evidence also points to indirect pathways that influence health and wellbeing through social connections and community engagement. Participation in team sports, for example, is associated with greater levels of emotional social support, sense of belonging, and social interaction (Owen et al., 2024). These social connections can provide a buffer against mental health challenges and contribute to overall wellbeing, while also developing social capital that can be beneficial for future educational and employment opportunities.

In alignment with the Theory of Change, these health and wellbeing outcomes serve as foundational elements that enable and enhance other outcomes. By promoting physical health, mental wellbeing, and social-emotional competencies, DCMS sector participation creates a robust platform from which individuals can more effectively engage in education, pursue employment opportunities, and contribute to their communities. This underscores the importance of health and wellbeing as a key enabler in the pathway towards the ultimate goals of social and income mobility.

Assessed as a whole, the research identified through this review indicates the potential for participation in DCMS sector programmes during childhood to support continued participation into adulthood and underpin improved health and wellbeing outcomes. This, in turn, feeds into the target impacts of the Opportunity mission. Maintaining good physical and mental health can both (1) drive social and income mobility by supporting positive labour market outcomes as an adult, and (2) counter the inhibitors of social and income mobility by reducing the negative consequences associated with poor health. While the outcomes associated with sport and physical activity are most heavily researched, and such interventions may therefore appear to be the clearest route to reach these outcomes, there is evidence that programmes across all sectors can meet these outcomes, and particularly strong evidence of the potential for youth programmes outside of culture and sport to do so. 

Breakdown of evidence strength – number of studies broken down by SMS Level

Table uses strength of evidence based on ‘The Maryland Scientific Methods Scale’ (SMS)

	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Other youth programs	Other youth programs	Other youth programs	Other youth programs
Outcome	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5
Wellbeing	2	1	0	0	0	4	0	0	0	0	0	1
Health	1	0	0	0	3	7	0	0	0	1	0	2
Mental health	0	0	0	0	2	3	1	0	1	0	0	2
Loneliness	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1

Culture and creative industries

The evidence suggests that participation in cultural activities promotes positive health and wellbeing outcomes among children. 

Wellbeing

• Research has demonstrated a link between cultural participation and socioemotional wellbeing. One study found a consistent relationship between the two, defining wellbeing as high life satisfaction, self-esteem and self-efficacy. The study noted that life satisfaction levels are higher where young people regularly make music, go to the cinema and are involved in music/drama clubs or lessons (Smyth, 2020). 
  • Significantly, the same study found that frequently playing computer games and watching television are associated with lower levels of socioemotional wellbeing and reduced feelings of self-efficacy (Smyth, 2020).
• Other interpretations saw wellbeing as a general state of happiness and health. Using this lens, participation can be seen to have positive wellbeing outcomes for children with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), specifically those with externalising behaviours like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Participation in extracurricular arts activities, such as dance, music or performing arts programs at 10/11 years of age was associated with improved wellbeing by 13/14 years of age. Here, wellbeing was explored as the absence or decrease of externalising behaviour and improvements in coping skills, emotion regulation and mental state. (Fluharty et al., 2023). 

Health

• Cultural participation has also been associated with positive health outcomes. Engagement has been linked to broad benefits like good general health, as well as improvements in specific functioning, like respiratory and cardiovascular performance. 
• One study found that attending events and exhibitions at libraries was positively associated with good general health (Fujiwara et al., 2015).  

Mental health

The literature review did not identify any studies with an SMS-level of 2 or higher which demonstrated a link between culture and the creative industries and mental health, specifically. This does not disprove an association with this outcome; one might expect, for instance, that participating in and enjoying cultural activities might improve mental health over the short, medium and long term, and there are overlaps between mental health and wellbeing (for which there is evidence of a link).

Loneliness

This literature review, based on a minimum of SMS Level 2 research, did not identify a robust link between culture and the creative industries and loneliness, specifically. However, as is the case for mental health, this does not disprove an association between culture initiatives and this outcome, particularly given the potential overlaps with wellbeing. 

Sport and Physical Activity  

Engaging in regular physical activity and participating in sports has been shown to have numerous benefits for health, as well as improved mental health and wellbeing, across different populations. 

Wellbeing

• A paper from the Manchester Metropolitan University created a sport participation index as a composite measure combining three aspects of sports participation (frequency, level of involvement, perceived importance). The results from the study indicated that the Sports participation index, non-cognitive skills, and wellbeing were positively related, showing that higher levels of sports participation in school were associated with higher levels of wellbeing (social identity, belonging, life satisfaction, and happiness) (Denovan and Dagnall, 2023).
• In a before-school physical activity programme called Build Our Kids Success (BOKS), active groups experienced a range of improvements in social–emotional wellness. Increasing access to before-school physical activity programs has the potential to positively impact child physical and mental health (Whooten et al., 2018).
• The study from 2024, based on a large nationally representative survey in England administered by Sport England, which looked at the social value of free physical activities has found that for primary school age children (year 3-6), physical activity both in school and out of school had a positive association with happiness scores and for secondary school age children (year 11-16), physical activity both in school and out of school had a positive association with life satisfaction scores. Increasing access to free physical activity in schools can have a substantial positive impact on children’s physical and mental health, especially for those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. The findings provide a compelling case for the social value of investing in school sport provision (State of Life, 2024).
  • The wellbeing benefits of school-based physical activity were especially pronounced for disadvantaged children. Free School Meal-eligible children experienced almost double the increase in life satisfaction from doing 90-120 minutes of activity at school vs. non-eligible peers (0.54 vs 0.30 points) (State of Life, 2024).
  • The study found that the estimated social benefit in monetary terms from getting one extra child at secondary school who was previously inactive to do half an hour a day of physical activity at school could be around £1,900 for every year that the provision lasts for secondary school children and £1,100 respectively for primary school children (State of Life, 2024).

Health

Multiple studies have consistently demonstrated the positive impact of physical activity and sports participation on overall health. Engaging in regular exercise and sports has been linked to a range of health benefits, including improved general health, reduced healthcare utilisation, and a lower risk of developing various health conditions. The following research findings underscore the importance of maintaining an active lifestyle for promoting lifelong health and wellbeing:

• A study that examined the relationship between physical activity and income levels indicated that by being physically active, a person can improve their health (Metelski, 2018). 
• A study part of the Culture and Sport Evidence (CASE) strategic research programme, which analysed the health and educational benefits of engaging in culture and sports activities found that sports participants are 14.1% more likely to report good general health compared to nonparticipants and are 25.4% less likely to frequently visit GPs and 8.4% less likely to use psychotherapy. 
  • This translates to estimated annual NHS cost savings per sports participant of £13.25 from reduced GP visits and £17.86 from reduced psychotherapy usage (Fujiwara et al., 2015).
• A study on how personal control and educational attainment relate to physical activity and lifelong health has found that regular physical activity throughout childhood and adolescence was noted to promote cognition, lifelong health, wellbeing, fitness and limit risk factors for various health conditions (Zhou et al., 2021).
• A study commissioned by DCMS and carried out by the London School of Economics investigated the association between participation in culture and sports and a range of social outcomes like health, education, employment and civic participation. It showed that sports participants were 14.1% more likely to report good health than nonparticipants. Sports participation improved GHQ scores (a measure of mental and physical health) by 5% on average. The impact was larger for individual vs team sports (Fujiwara et al., 2014).

Additionally, physical activity is seen by the literature as way to combat disease risk factors such as obesity:

• A study investigating whether active outdoor play and sports participation at age 10 predicted physical activity at a later age found that throughout the life course, physical activity aids in the prevention of noncommunicable disease risk factors like hypertension, high cholesterol and obesity. It also stated that physical activity may benefit psychological health by aiding in the reduction of anxiety and depression (Smith et al., 2015).
• A before-school physical activity programme where children participated 3 days/week resulted in improved BMI and prevented increases in child overweight and obesity (Whooten et al., 2018).
• Also, reducing sedentary time during lessons can be an effective obesity reduction strategy for overweight primary school children (Ronca et al., 2024).

Mental health

Studies have demonstrated the positive impact of sports participation and physical activity on mental health. Regular exercise and sports have been linked to improved mental toughness and self-efficacy, which can facilitate better mental health outcomes. Physical activity has also been associated with reduced risk of common mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression in children and adolescents. The following research findings highlight the potential of sports and exercise to promote mental health:

• A study by the Manchester Metropolitan University found that sports participation predicts greater levels of wellbeing, through mental toughness and self-efficacy, which in turn facilitates positive mental health (Denovan and Dagnall, 2023).
• Physical activity, both in and out of school, has been positively associated with increased happiness and life satisfaction scores for both primary and secondary school children (State of life, 2024).
  • The study estimated that meeting the Chief Medical Officers’ recommendation of an hour a day of physical activity was associated with a 0.6 increase in life satisfaction/happiness scores compared to being inactive. This equates to a wellbeing value of around £7,800 per child per year (State of life, 2024).
  • Half an hour a day of physical activity at school was associated with a 0.15 increase in life satisfaction for secondary students and a 0.084 increase in happiness for primary students compared to inactivity. This equates to a wellbeing value of £1,900 and £1,100 per year respectively (State of life, 2024).
• Finally, disorders like anxiety and depression are impacting people’s mental health which can be combatted by sport participation or physical activity:
  • Booth (2023) hypothesized that physical activity may have beneficial effects on self-esteem which in turn influences risk of depression in adolescence (Booth et al., 2023).
  • A study examining the relationship between physical activity and income levels noted that physical activity helps to cope with stress, anxiety and depression (Metelski, 2018).
  • Fujiwara et al (2015) found in a study that analysed the health and educational benefits of engaging in culture and sports activities that sports participants are 0.5% less likely to report clinical depression which would increase the annual per person QALY (quality-adjusted life year) value of this reduced likelihood of depression is about £40 for participation in any sport and £34 for individual sports (Fujiwara et al., 2015).

Loneliness

The literature review did not identify any studies with an SMS-level of 2 or higher which demonstrated a link between sport and physical activity and loneliness. This does not disprove an association with this outcome.

Youth 

Engagement with youth initiatives, volunteering, and having the support of trusted adults more generally are positively associated with having good health and wellbeing in later life. The following evidence outlines the specific domains within which participation has promoted positive health and wellbeing outcomes, demonstrating the need to create an environment where children can participate regularly. 

Wellbeing

• Evidence suggested that participation in mentoring programmes can lead to improved wellbeing. A study into the effects of community mentoring programmes like the Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) mentoring programme found that mentees demonstrated significantly reduced depressive and emotional symptoms. This was attributed to the positive attention which participants receive from mentors, and the opportunity to engage in enjoyable activities which programmes provide (Herrera et al., 2023).

Health

Research demonstrated that children who can rely on the support of a trusted adult during childhood are less likely to adopt health harming behaviours in the future. Trusted adult support may come through participation in activities, clubs or programmes, which offer the opportunity to build relationships with volunteers and mentors, or it may come from specific interventions designed to offer personalised support and guidance to children and young people. A discussion of the specific activities which facilitated trusted adult support is outside the scope of this chapter. However, access to this support demonstrably leads to positive health outcomes for participants.

• Having the support of a trusted adult in childhood has been evidenced to decrease the likelihood of children adopting health harming behaviours and subsequently having lower mental wellbeing as an adult. Alternatively put, trusted adult support during adolescence leads to better health outcomes as an adult, including reduced risks of daily smoking and a better diet. This, in turn, leads to better mental wellbeing. Trusted adult support was also linked to developing fewer noncommunicable diseases in adulthood, including liver disease, cancer and hypertension (Bellis et al., 2017). 
• One study found that students who participated in the ‘connection through PLAY’ intervention, a 10-week motivational social climate intervention delivered to students after school, with the aim of increasing moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA), demonstrated an increased likelihood of engaging in physical activity in their leisure time. Compared to the control group, participation was associated with an increase of 8.18 minutes daily (56 minutes of additional MVPA weekly) (Zarett et al., 2021).
• Research into the impact that cooking classes have for 12–15-year olds’ health found that participation was linked to improved BMI and diet scores relative to the control group. The intervention group in COOK, an intensive five-day cooking course and a six-week homebased follow up period where participants received weekly meal kits, saw improved diet quality and large effect sizes in cooking self-efficacy, which remained significant at 12 months (Kuroko et al., 2020).

Mental health

Volunteering during childhood and participating in uniformed youth initiatives have been positively associated with improved mental health outcomes, both during childhood and later in life.

• One study found that volunteering offers the conditions to achieve a state of optimal mental health, by giving participants ‘meaning, competence, self-esteem, positive emotion and positive relationships’. Volunteering once per week is associated with twice the likelihood of psychological flourishing, and a positive state of wellbeing (Santini et al., 2019: 4). 
• Participation in uniformed youth initiatives was also linked to positive wellbeing and self-perceptions. Results demonstrated that adolescents who participated in uniformed-youth initiatives were found to be more self-confident than their non-participating peers, exhibiting improvement in self-reported resilience, happiness and empathy (See et al., 2017).
• Research also found a link between participating in youth empowerment programmes and a reduction in physical violence against women and girls. Evidence suggested that participating in the programme, which trains individuals in soft and technical skills, offers job finding assistance, mentoring and sexual education, can improve physical and emotional wellbeing by lowering girls’ exposure to abuse. The study of 15–18-year-olds found that, relative to the control group, participating girls were 56% less likely to experience physical violence, 50% less likely to experience psychological violence, and 103% less likely to experience sexual violence. The study attributed this reduction to minimised exposure to abusers and increased knowledge and access to support services (Gulesci et al., 2021). 

Loneliness

• Youth self-care programmes, which develop adolescents social-emotional skills and self-observation, have been linked to reductions in loneliness.  A study into the impact that the Heartfulness Self-Care programme, which promotes social-emotional learning tools and educates children in stress management, found that participating students had lower levels of loneliness, measured using the UCLA Loneliness Scale, than the non-participating control group (Iyer et al., 2023).

The table giving an overview of the evidence review used for these outcomes can be found in Annex C- table 12.1.

Education outcomes

Summary of findings

Evidence reviewed

• A moderately strong link between participation in DCMS sector programmes and education outcomes, albeit with variation between sectors, with the strongest link found with sport and physical activity.
• Based on 24 studies rated above SMS Level 2: culture (6), sport (13), and other youth activities (5).

Key outcomes:

• Attendance [7 studies], attainment [12], and higher education progression [5].  

Key findings

• The evidence linking DCMS sector participation with educational outcomes is robust and wide ranging. 
• Cultural activities are strongly associated with improvements in literacy and numeracy, particularly in school-aged children. 
• Sports have a solid evidence base for improving school attendance and engagement, which in turn boosts academic performance. 
• Youth programs show significant evidence in fostering educational aspirations and career readiness. The evidence relating Youth programs to improvements in GCSE outcomes is particularly helpful for future analysis and replicating for cultural and physical exercise could be valuable.

Overview

Positive education outcomes are frequently referenced in the literature on DCMS sector participation. They have a direct link to the target impacts of the Opportunity Mission, given the specific pillar on helping every child to achieve and thrive at school. With 24 studies rated SMS Level 2 or above demonstrating this link, education outcomes are a core area of focus for the Theory of Change. Although there are limited instances of the most robust research (SMS Level 5) demonstrating this connection, this may partly reflect the difficulty of conducting such studies in DCMS sectors. However, this does not detract from the established link between DCMS sectors and education outcomes.

The key outcomes identified within this category (discussed in detail below) can be summarised as: 

• Attendance: Improved school attendance and reduced absenteeism. 
• Attainment: Tangible outcomes in education such as grades, scores and results, as well as the wider development of skills which support one’s academic performance. 
• Higher education progression: Increased aspiration to and likelihood of pursuing higher education and university enrolment. 

We find evidence of each of these outcomes across the DCMS sectors when considered in aggregate, such that we consider there is robust and wide-ranging evidence of a link between DCMS sectors as a whole and education improvements. However, there is variation between sectors and attainment improvements are better evidenced than others. Table 6.1 summarises this variation by assessing the quantity and relative strength of evidence.

Sections 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4 discuss the detail of the evidence identified with respect to culture, sport and other youth initiatives. Drawing these findings together, we consider that: 

Improvements in attainment feature prominently as an outcome across interventions in all DCMS sectors.

• The greatest quantity of robust research exists for sport (8 studies), though this is closely followed by culture (5 studies), in which we have found evidence meeting the highest level of robustness. There is a more limited quantity of evidence in relation to other youth initiatives (3 studies), though the link is nonetheless demonstrated. The evidence of participation supporting improved academic attainment is therefore strong, with cultural programmes supporting attainment through the development of skills and attitudes, for instance. Research into youth initiatives beyond culture and sport also indicates that the absence of youth programmes may have a negative effect on attainment. 

Higher education progression is also evidenced as a valuable outcome of participation in DCMS sector initiatives, though to a much lesser extent than attainment.

• This positive association is found across participants in culture and sport programmes, through the quantity of research is limited (with 3 studies demonstrating this for culture, and 1 for sport). This review has not found an evidenced link between participation in other youth initiatives and higher education progression though this does not disprove an association – given the evidence of links between participation and attainment, there may be overlaps that support higher education progression but are less well researched.

There is limited evidence of DCMS sector programmes supporting attendance in education settings, though a link is present.

• We have identified one study making this connection for sport and physical activity, and two for youth activities outside of culture and sport. However, we have not identified evidence of cultural programmes supporting attendance. As with higher education progression, the absence of research does not disprove this connection. 

The literature highlights several key mechanisms by which DCMS sector participation leads to improved educational outcomes. 

One set of pathways works through the development of cognitive abilities and academic skills. Learning to play a musical instrument, for example, has been linked to neurocognitive adaptations that improve brain function, memory, attention, and problem solving (Román-Caballero et al., 2022). These cognitive enhancements have direct implications for students’ ability to acquire and apply new knowledge in educational settings. Similarly, participation in cultural activities more broadly is associated with gains in specific academic abilities like numeracy and literacy (Smyth, 2020), which are foundational for performance across academic subjects. The development of these cognitive and academic skills through DCMS participation provides a direct mechanism for improved educational outcomes.

A second set of pathways operates by shaping attitudes, beliefs, and motivations related to learning. Engaging in arts and cultural activities has been shown to instil a sense of motivation and a desire to learn and achieve, increasing the likelihood of pursuing further education (Smyth, 2020; Fujiwara et al., 2015). Likewise, participating in sports is associated with higher educational aspirations and improved school attendance (Fujiwara et al., 2015). As noted in section 3.7, these attitudinal and motivational mechanisms fall under the attitudes, beliefs, and values outcome category. This literature also suggests a positive impact on social and emotional competencies like self-regulation, emotional management, and interpersonal abilities, which have been shown to support both wellbeing and educational success in youth programs (Bavarian et al., 2013). These positive attitudes and competencies help create the conditions for sustained engagement and persistence.

In addition to these indirect pathways, the evidence also points to direct mechanisms that influence educational outcomes through more immediate behavioural changes. For instance, sports participation has been linked to better school attendance and study habits, which enable achievement (Fujiwara et al., 2015). Unlike the cognitive or attitudinal pathways, which may take time to be seen in educational results, these mechanisms have a direct and near-term impact on attendance.

Considered collectively, these outcomes highlight the potential for participation in DCMS sectors to support increased academic attainment and greater education levels over the course of an individual’s life. This directly supports the Opportunity Mission by underpinning the target impact of helping every child to achieve and thrive at school, which will support social and income mobility in later life through the labour market opportunities that might follow. While the outcomes associated with sport and physical activity are the most heavily researched in relation to attainment, there is evidence that programmes across all sectors can meet this key outcome, and the strongest evidence exists in relation to culture programmes. As such, this review finds that engagement with DCMS sectors. almost irrespective of the exact area of focus, is an evidenced route to supporting improved education outcomes. 

Table 1.1: Breakdown of evidence strength - number of studies broken down by SMS Level

Table uses strength of evidence based on ‘The Maryland Scientific Methods Scale’ (SMS)

	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Other youth programs	Other youth programs	Other youth programs	Other youth programs
Outcome	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5
Attendance	0	0	0	0	0	1	3	1	0	1	0	1
Attainment	2	1	0	1	2	3	0	0	0	2	1	0
Higher Education Progression	0	2	0	0	1	2	0	0	0	0	0	0

Culture and the creative industries

The educational outcomes which were most significant in this ToC for culture were educational attainment, and higher education progression. 

Attendance

The literature review did not identify any studies with an SMS-level of 2 or higher which demonstrate a link between culture and the creative industries and Attendance. This does not disprove an association with this outcome.

Attainment

The link between culture programmes and educational attainment as an outcome was strong. Evidence suggests the impact that participation has is twofold. Firstly, improved grades may be the direct result of the acquisition of tangible abilities that children receive from participation, for example, improved numerical and literacy skills. However, higher attainment may also be the result of intangible qualities which children acquire through participation in culture, like motivation and a desire to achieve (Smyth, 2020).  

• Involvement in music, drama lessons or clubs was associated with higher Junior Certificate grades in Ireland (Smyth, 2020). 
• Learning to play a musical instrumental was linked to greater educational achievement. Evidence demonstrated that participation led to neurocognitive adaptations, resulting in further developments of cognitive skills and subsequent academic achievement (Román-Caballero et all, 2022). 
• Attainment in writing progressed, on average, 2.72 points for students who participated in the Museum and Galleries Partnership in Education (MAGPIE) project, a programme which aimed to strengthen the relationship between museums and schools by providing more opportunities for learning and engagement. This involved connecting museum collections and resources with the national curriculum. The rate of this increase was 173% faster than local and national improvement targets (Stanley, 2006). 
• Time to Act, a research study exploring the impact that studying Shakespeare’s work has on children’s development found a statistically significant relationship between participating in the intervention and improved grammatical skills. Participating students were found to use longer clauses and phrasal units in their written work, which is indicative of greater syntactical sophistication (Royal Shakespeare Company, 2021). 

Higher education progression

Another educational outcome associated with cultural participation is higher education progression. Participation instils feelings of motivation and a desire to learn and achieve, culminating in an increased likelihood to continue education beyond school leaving age.

• Among low socioeconomic groups, those with a history of arts involvement demonstrate higher rates of university enrolment (Catterall, 2012). 
• One study found that those who attend arts and music clubs in secondary school are 56% more likely to progress to higher education by age 21/22 than nonparticipants (Robinson, 2024). 

Sport and Physical Activity 

Participation in sports and physical activity has been linked to various educational benefits for students. The evidence found a strong positive relationship on school attendance, educational attainment and higher educational progression:

Attendance

• An Australian 2024 study focusing on the long-term patterns of sport participation from childhood into adolescence and their association with various academic outcomes found that continued sport participation was associated with 56% lower odds of being absent from school without permission and participation in organized sport was associated with better school attendance and higher attainment (Owen et al., 2024).
• A study part of DCMS’s Culture and Sport Evidence (CASE) strategic research programme analysed the health and educational benefits of engaging in culture and sports activities and found that sports and physical fitness in the UK were associated with actual higher/further educational attendance; improved concentration; higher mathematics achievement and reading ability; better verbal, numeric, and reasoning abilities; better grades; and improved memory and school attendance (Fujiwara et al., 2015). 
• A study investigating the relationships between sports participation, mental toughness, self-efficacy, and wellbeing indicators among Year 9 and 10 secondary school students in the UK found that participation in organized sport was associated with better school attendance and higher attainment (Denovan and Dagnall, 2023).
• A study that looked into access to extra-curricular activities during secondary school and the longer-term outcomes of students who do participate showed a positive association between attending clubs focused on hobbies, arts and music during secondary school (years 9-10) and progressing to higher education by age 21/22. Participating in these types of clubs was associated with a 56% increase in the odds of attending higher education compared to students who did not participate in any extracurricular clubs (Robinson, 2024).
• The Build Our Kids Success (BOKS) program, a before school physical activity intervention for elementary and middle school students (ages 5-14 years), found that significant improvements were found among physical active participants related to student engagement, positive affect, and vitality/energy (Whooten et al., 2018).

Attainment

• An Australian 2024 study focusing on the long-term patterns of sport participation from childhood into adolescence and their association with various academic outcomes found that continued sport participation was associated with higher end of school academic performance measured by Australian Tertiary Admission Ranks (ATAR) scores. More specifically, participation in individual sport and both sports were associated with higher ATAR scores at the end of school (Owen et al., 2024).
• Walking and cycling to school for 10-30 minutes per day was associated with 30% higher odds of self-reported high perceived academic performance compared to nonactive transportation (Jussila et al., 2023).
• A study investigating the relationships between sports participation, mental toughness, self-efficacy, and wellbeing indicators among Year 9 and 10 secondary school students in the UK found that participation in organized sport was associated with better school attendance and higher attainment (Denovan and Dagnall, 2023).

Higher educational progression

• A study commissioned by DCMS and carried out by the London School of Economics investigated the association between participation in culture and sports and a range of social outcomes like health, education, employment and civic participation. It showed that among sports, swimming was associated with a 7% increase in likelihood of going on to further education (Fujiwara et al., 2014). 
• A study part of DCMS’s Culture and Sport Evidence (CASE) strategic research programme analysed the health and educational benefits of engaging in culture and sports activities and found that sports and physical fitness in the UK were associated with improved higher/further educational aspirations; improved concentration; higher mathematics achievement and reading ability; better verbal, numeric, and reasoning abilities; better grades; and improved memory. They were also associated with increased aspirations to attend higher education and higher education attendance (Fujiwara et al., 2015).
• An Australian 2024 study focusing on the long-term patterns of sport participation from childhood into adolescence and their association with various academic outcomes found that continued sport participation was associated with higher odds of studying at university. Those who participated in individual sports had an 88% increased likelihood of studying at university, while someone who participated in a team sport had a 32% increased chance. Children who participated in both were twice as likely to study at university compared to non-participants (Owen et al., 2024).

Youth 

The availability of and participation in youth services (beyond culture and sport) has shown through the literature review to generate positive education outcomes on attendance and educational attainment. 

Attendance

• Research suggested that participating in Summer Youth Employment Programmes (SYEP) increases’ student’s attendance. Results from Leos-Urbel’s study found that SYEP had a positive impact on school attendance of 1 to 2 percent on average, or roughly 2-3 days across the following academic year (Leos‐Urbel, 2014). 

• Significantly, impact estimates were larger for students with low educational attainment or attendance in the prior school year. Attendance increase for this group was equivalent to 4-5 more days of school attended (Leos‐Urbel, 2014).

• Research into adolescents participation in extracurricular activities found that female participants were significantly more likely to plan to progress to higher education after leaving school. Over half (55%) of female students who participated in any extracurricular activity intended to attend university, compared with 18% of non-participants (Blomfield and Barber, 2010).

Attainment

• Research into the short- and medium-term impacts of Sure Start centres in England, local ‘one-stop shops’ that brought together services to support local families and children under the age of five, showed a positive relationship between access to a centre and educational attainment. One study estimated that children that used a Sure Start centre in their first five years performed between 2 to 2.8 grades better in their GCSEs, and children who lived within 2.5 kilometres of a Sure Start centre performed 0.8 grades better (average impacts across all children, regardless of use of the centre) (Carneiro et al., 2024). 

• Critically, the research showed a larger impact of this intervention on children from lower income backgrounds (determined by eligibility for free school meals), with an average improvement of 3 GCSE grades as a result of exposure to Sure Start, and children from non-white backgrounds, with an improvement equivalent to 1.8 GCSE grades (Carneiro et al., 2024). 

• A study into the effects of youth clubs on education found that the closure of youth clubs between 2010 to 2019 led to large decreases in performance in GCSEs at ages 15-16, with the research estimating that teenagers in affected areas performed almost 4% worse after the closures. The research found greater effects among disadvantaged groups, with GCSE results among young people eligible for free school meals falling by 11.5% following the closures (Villa, 2024). 

• A study evaluating the impact of School based social-emotional and character development programmes (SECD) like the Positive Action (PA) programme, found that students in schools where PA programmes had been implemented were shown to have improved academic outcomes.  PA programmes had a positive impact on academic motivation and ability, by fostering skills such as problem solving, self-control and emotional regulation (Bavarian et al., 2013).

• Improvements to academic outcomes were specifically pronounced for black male students and individuals receiving free school meals, who demonstrated significant improvements to reading and mathematics performance (Bavarian et al., 2013).

Higher educational progression

The literature review for this review, based on a minimum of SMS Level 2 research, did not identify any studies with an SMS-level of 2 or higher which demonstrate a link between youth initiatives (outside of culture and sport) and higher education progression. This does not disprove an association between youth initiatives and this outcome, noting that increased educational attainment (for which there is evidence) may support higher education progression over the longer term. 

The table giving an overview of the evidence review used for these outcomes can be found in Annex C- table 12.2.

Individual skills and knowledge outcomes

Summary of findings

Evidence reviewed

• There is a strong link between participation in DCMS sector programmes and individual skills and knowledge outcomes, with robust evidence present for these outcomes across all three sectors. 
• Based on 29 studies rated above SMS Level 2: Culture (6), Sport (19) and other youth activities (4).

Key outcomes

• Skills (in a broad sense) [12 studies], cognition [12], creativity [1], and social capital [4]

Key findings

• There is compelling evidence for the role of DCMS initiatives in developing essential skills and knowledge. 
• Cultural activities enhance cognitive abilities, literacy, emotional regulation, and creativity. 
• Sports participation develops valuable life skills such as teamwork, communication, and self-discipline. 
• Youth programs contribute to social-emotional learning, communication skills, and critical thinking. 
• Skills development supports improved educational and employment outcomes. Skills like teamwork and communication, while linked to educational success, also enhance civic engagement and social cohesion which could be used to further support findings in Section 8.

Overview

Individual skills and knowledge development emerged as a key theme throughout the literature review. It directly links to the target impacts of the Opportunity mission, given the specific pillar on building skills for opportunity and growth and supporting the progression of young people to good employment, education and training. Given this alignment with the mission, and with 29 studies rated SMS Level 2 or above demonstrating a link, individual skills and knowledge form a core part of the Theory of Change. This review identified only one study reaching the highest level of robustness – SMS Level 5 – but we do not consider that this detracts from the connection between DCMS sector participation and skills and knowledge outcomes. 

The key outcomes identified within this category (discussed in detail below) can be summarised as: 

• Skills: Life skills that support the progression to good employment, education and training into adulthood, such as communication, teamwork, organisation, goal setting, language and critical thinking, amongst others. 
• Cognition: Neurological developments and improved brain function, such as in relation to memory and attention. 
• Creativity: Imagination, inventiveness and originality 
• Social capital: Networks and relationships, often built around common experiences and knowledge

We found evidence of each of these outcomes across the DCMS sectors when considered in aggregate, such that we consider that there is compelling evidence of the role of DCMS sector programmes in supporting skills and knowledge development. However, as with other outcome areas, there is variation in the evidence identified across sectors, and skills and cognition outcomes are better evidenced than creativity and social capital outcomes. Table 7.1 summarises this variation by assessing the quantity and relative strength of evidence.

Sections 7.2, 7.3 and 7.4 discuss the detail of the evidence identified with respect to culture, sport and other youth initiatives. Drawing these findings together, we consider that: 

Participation in culture, sport, and other youth programmes contributes to the development of a wide range of skills.

• Engaging in the arts, such as reading, dance, singing, and playing instruments, can improve literacy, verbal skills, vocabulary, emotional regulation, and sensorimotor skills. Sports and physical activity (for which we have identified the greatest quantity and strength of evidence of these outcomes) can foster the acquisition of valuable life skills, including communication, teamwork, organisation, goal setting, and self-control. Other youth activities, such as Movement and Story-Telling interventions and extracurricular clubs, can support the development of language skills, communication, critical thinking, creativity, and collaboration.

Involvement in culture, sport and other youth programmes can also promote cognitive development.

• Learning to play a musical instrument is linked to neurocognitive adaptations, leading to improvements in brain function, memory, and attention. Adolescents with a high level of fitness displayed superior cognitive function and working memory compared to those with lower levels of fitness. Regular physical activity throughout childhood and adolescence promoted cognition, attention, and working memory. Attending Sure Start centres during childhood had positive effects on language and mathematical skills.

This review identified surprisingly little evidence of the potential for DCMS sector participation to support creativity.

• We identified one study indicating that children who participate in arts activities demonstrated greater creativity. Creativity itself is difficult to measure, and as such appeared in relatively few studies that this review would deem sufficiently robust. Reflecting this, we have not identified evidence of creativity development flowing from participation in sport or other youth programmes, though this does not disprove a connection. 

This review identified some strong evidence of social capital development, though this is not evenly spread across sectors.

• The review identified four studies that establish this connection for sports programmes, indicating that engagement with sport and physical activity can support individuals to make contacts and develop their social networks. This review did not find evidence of similar outcomes for culture and other youth programmes. However, as with creativity, social capital is likely to be difficult to measure and the absence of robust evidence does not disprove an association with this outcome. 

The literature highlights several key mechanisms by which DCMS sector participation leads to the development of individual skills and knowledge. These skills and knowledge outcomes often serve as precursors to longer-term outcomes such as improved educational attainment and enhanced employment prospects, as outlined in the Theory of Change. 

One set of pathways works through direct skill acquisition and practice. Participation in cultural activities, particularly in the arts, has been shown to improve specific skills. For example, reading frequently throughout childhood and adolescence was associated with improvements in verbal skills and broader vocabulary by age 17 (Smyth, 2020). Similarly, learning to play a musical instrument was linked to neurocognitive adaptations, leading to improvements in brain function, memory, and attention (Román-Caballero et al., 2022). In sports, participation fostered the development of valuable life skills such as communication, teamwork, organisation, and goal setting (Metelski, 2018).

A second set of pathways operates through cognitive development and enhancement. Regular engagement in physical activity during childhood and adolescence was positively associated with enhanced cognitive abilities, which persist throughout life (Zhou et al., 2021). This included improvements in attention, working memory, and executive function. Cultural participation more broadly was associated with developments in mental plasticity and academic potential (Mecocci et al., 2022).

The evidence also points to pathways that develop social and emotional skills. Participation in extracurricular arts activities was associated with improved emotional regulation (Fluharty et al., 2023). Youth programs, such as scouting, were linked to increased self-efficacy and confidence (Kim et al., 2016). These social-emotional skills complement cognitive skills and contribute to overall personal development.

It’s important to note that while the Theory of Change suggests similar pathways across all DCMS sectors, the evidence for skills and knowledge outcomes varies in strength and quantity across sectors. The evidence was particularly strong for sports and physical activity, with a wealth of studies demonstrating cognitive and skill development benefits. The evidence for cultural activities and other youth programs, while present, was somewhat less extensive for certain outcomes.

In alignment with the Theory of Change, these individual skills and knowledge outcomes serve as building blocks for other outcomes. By developing cognitive abilities, practical skills, and socioemotional competencies, DCMS sector participation equips individuals with tools that can support their education, employment prospects, and overall life success. This underscores the foundational role of skills and knowledge development in the broader impact of DCMS sector participation.

Assessed as a whole, these outcomes highlight the strong role that DCMS sectors can play in supporting children and young people to develop skills and knowledge that will support future life outcomes. While the evidence in some areas (namely creativity and social capital) was limited, this is likely to be more reflective of the difficulty of measuring and capturing such outcomes robustly. This review does, however, find compelling evidence across the three DCMS sectors of the link to skill development (across a wide range of valuable life skills) which can directly support the Opportunity Mission.  

Table 1.2: Breakdown of evidence strength – number of studies broken down by SMS Level

Table uses strength of evidence based on ‘The Maryland Scientific Methods Scale’ (SMS)

	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Other youth programs	Other youth programs	Other youth programs	Other youth programs
Outcome	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5
Skills	1	1	0	0	2	5	1	0	1	1	0	0
Cognition	0	2	0	1	1	5	1	0	0	2	0	0
Creativity	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Social Capital	0	0	0	0	1	3	0	0	0	0	0	0

Culture and creative industries

Skills

The cultivation of skills was among the strongest outcomes associated with participation in culture. ‘Skills’ is a broad term that encompasses tangible abilities developed through participation, such as literacy skills, as well as traits and behaviours that enable individuals to succeed in various contexts, including emotional regulation.

• Reading frequently throughout childhood and adolescence was associated with improvements in verbal skills by 17 years of age. Children who read frequently had a broader vocabulary, and performed better on naming tests than those who did not participate (Smyth, 2020). 
• Participation in extracurricular arts activities was seen to be associated with improved emotional regulation, captured through a decrease in externalising behaviours, by 8th grade (Fluharty et al., 2023). 

Cognition

Alongside the development of skills, literature suggested that participation in culture can contribute to cognitive development for children and young people.

• Participation in culture, in general, was associated with developments in mental plasticity and academic potential (Mecocci et al., 2022). 
• Learning to play a musical instrument was linked to development of neurocognitive adaptations, which, in turn, led to improvements in brain function, cognitive processes and abilities like memory and attention (Román-Caballero et all, 2022). 

• Attending art museums was linked to higher measures of critical thinking. Students who went on school visits to art museums performed 9% higher than non-participating peers on the critical thinking measure (Bowen et al., 2014). 

• The critical thinking improvements from attending art museums were greatest for disadvantaged students. The study found that for students who were less likely to attend an art museum in the absence of the intervention (i.e. disadvantaged students), there was a statistically significant difference in the impact of the treatment relative to similar students in the control group (Bowen et al., 2014). 

Creativity

Literature noted that creativity is difficult to measure, so it appears in fewer scientifically robust studies than other, more quantifiable abilities like literacy and verbal skills. However, the following literature demonstrates the link between cultural participation and creativity.

• Listening and learning to play music and involvement in theatre, drama, and dance fostered improved creativity (Fujiwara et al., 2015). 

Social capital

The literature review did not identify any studies with an SMS-level of 2 or higher which demonstrate a link between culture and the creative industries and social capital. 

Sport and Physical Activity 

Our research explored the influence of sports participation and physical activity on individual cognitive abilities and skill development. The evidence suggests that regular engagement in activity and sport can contribute to enhanced cognitive performance, academic achievement, and the cultivation of important life skills. The studies reviewed below underscore the role of sports and physical activity in promoting cognitive development and fostering the growth of crucial skills:

Skills

Participation in sports and physical activity was linked to the development of a wide range of skills that extend beyond the realm of physical abilities. Research showed that engaging in sports can foster the acquisition of valuable life skills such as communication, teamwork, organisation, goal setting, and self-control. These skills not only benefit individuals in their personal lives, but also contributed to their success in academic and professional settings. The following studies highlight the potential of sports and physical activity to cultivate essential skills:

• A study examining the relationship between physical activity and income levels indicated that participation in sport can help one acquire useful competences for the labour market, such as communication, teamwork, organisation and goal-pursuit skills (Metelski, 2018).
• A study on an afterschool volleyball programme found that participation in a structured volleyball programme not only decreased aggression but also fostered better physical fitness compared to traditional physical education classes. It suggests that mechanisms such as increased self-control skills play a crucial role in this process (Trajkovi et al., 2020).
• A study from Loturco et al (2022), analysing the effects of different physical activity interventions implemented in school settings on the academic performance of students, found that the positive effects of school based physical activity programs were larger for mathematics skills, with subgroup analyses revealing no significant effects for language and reading related abilities and composite scores (Loturco et al., 2022).
• A study investigating the relationships between sports participation, mental toughness, self-efficacy, and wellbeing indicators among Year 9 and 10 secondary school students in the UK found that, in addition to being associated with positive psychological, social, and behavioural outcomes, physical activity and sport participation within schools constructively influenced life perspective. Self-efficacy, along with mental toughness, mediated the relationship between sports participation and wellbeing (Denovan and Dagnall, 2023).
• A study examining the long-term patterns of sport participation from childhood into adolescence, and their association with various academic outcomes, found that team sports were associated with a greater level of emotional social support, sense of belonging, higher self-esteem, social network, and social interaction (Owen et al., 2024).
• One study analysing the health and educational benefits of engaging in culture and sports activities found that the benefits of participation were extensive. Benefits included higher academic achievement and aspirations, increased likelihood of attending higher education, higher IQ scores, better school attendance, improved spatial reasoning and verbal skills, greater mathematic and reading proficiency, higher motivation, improved creativity, resilience, self-regulation, self-identity, self-esteem, and academic self-concept (Fujiwara et al., 2015).
• The Movement for Learning programme revealed that daily physical interventions of 20 minutes improved writing levels and physical readiness to write for participants. Also associated was improved listening skills and readiness to learn (Preedy et al., 2020).

Cognition

• One study revealed that adolescents with high fitness levels exhibited superior cognitive function compared to their less fit peers across all assessed domains, including attention, working memory, and executive function. The enhanced cognitive performance in adolescents with high levels of fitness is believed to stem from physiological processes which are crucial for neuroplasticity and cognitive enhancement (Gilbert et al., 2023). 
• A study noted that increasing physical activity in school settings shows promising effects on various child development areas, including cognitive outcomes and academic performance. This study evaluated a before-school physical activity program, Build Our Kids Success (BOKS), which demonstrated not only positive impacts on physical health, such as reductions in BMI, but also improvements in socioemotional wellness among children (Whooten et al., 2018).
• Research demonstrated that participation in daily 6-minute coordinated-bilateral physical activity (CBPA) breaks, for four weeks, was associated with significantly improved processing speed, focused attention, concentration, performance, and attention span for participating children relative to the control group (Harris et al., 2018).
• According to the 2021 study on how personal control and educational attainment relate to physical activity (PA) and lifelong health, regular engagement in PA during childhood and adolescence was positively associated with enhanced cognitive abilities, which can persist throughout life. The research highlights that PA contributed significantly to overall wellbeing, helping to mitigate various health risks and supporting cognitive development during critical growth phases (Zhou et al., 2021).
• Utilizing data from a national sample of Australian children, a study focusing on the long-term patterns of sport participation from childhood into adolescence observed that those who continued participating in in team and individual sports throughout childhood and adolescence demonstrated better academic performance, including enhanced attention and working memory skills (Owen et al., 2024).
• A study reviewing the effects of different physical activity interventions on the academic performance of students found participation was associated with significant improvements to academic performance. Participation was associated with improvements to performance in mathematics tests. (Loturco et al., 2022).

Social Capital

• A study examining the relationship between physical activity and income levels indicated that engaging in sport with others facilitated the development of social capital, via networking (Metelski, 2018).
• A study focusing on the long-term patterns of sport participation from childhood into adolescence, and their association with various academic outcomes, found that playing in team sports was associated with a greater level of emotional social support, sense of belonging, higher self-esteem, social network, and social interaction (Owen et al., 2024).
• A study investigating the relationships between sports participation, mental toughness, self-efficacy, and wellbeing indicators among Year 9 and 10 secondary school students in the UK found that sports participation for young people was constructive. Participation was associated with a range of benefits, including social connections, relationships, development of non-cognitive skills, and an improved sense of identity and belonging, which were affiliated with greater wellbeing (Denovan and Dagnall, 2023).

Creativity

The literature review, based on a minimum of SMS-level 2, did not identify a robust causal link between sport or physical activity and creativity. This does not disprove an association with this outcome.

Youth 

In line with culture and sport, participating in youth activities was also shown to support skills development. This includes both cognitive and non-cognitive skills, which set children on the path towards achievement and fulfilment in adult life. 

Skills

• Participation in extracurricular clubs helped build social competencies for children. Outcomes for children with autism were significant; participation was positively associated with improvements in communication skills, critical thinking, creativity and collaboration (McDaniel et al., 2022).
• Research into the benefits of Scouting found a positive association between participation and confidence, measured through feelings of self-efficacy. Scouting was found to instil in participants a sense of belonging, responsibility and competence, all of which contribute to positive self-perceptions and self-assurances (Kim et al., 2016). 

Cognition 

• A study of the effects of Movement and Story-Telling (MAST) interventions for children in Reception found a statistically significant improvement in language skills as a result of participation after 12 weeks of activity (35 minutes, once per week), largely driven by improvements in expressive language (Cunningham et al., 2023).
• Research into the short- and medium-term effects of Sure Start centres in England found that attending a centre during childhood had a statistically significant positive effect on language and communication skills at age 5. When later development and achievement was considered, the research found that attending a Sure Start centre had a statistically significant positive effect on both language and mathematics skills (Carneiro et al., 2024).

Creativity

The literature review, based on a minimum of SMS-level 2, did not identify a robust causal link between youth initiatives (outside of culture and sport) and creativity. This does not disprove an association with this outcome.

Conclusions on the strength of evidence for individual skills and knowledge outcomes

There is compelling evidence for the role of DCMS initiatives in developing essential skills and knowledge. Cultural activities enhance cognitive abilities, literacy, emotional regulation, and creativity. Sports participation develops valuable life skills such as teamwork, communication, and self-discipline. Youth programs contribute to social-emotional learning, communication skills, and critical thinking. Skills development supports improved educational and employment outcomes. Skills like teamwork and communication, while linked to educational success, also enhance civic engagement and social cohesion which could be used to further support findings in Section 9.

The table giving an overview of the evidence review used for these outcomes can be found in Annex C- table 12.4.

Attitudes, beliefs and values outcomes

Summary of findings

Evidence reviewed

• There is strong evidence of links between participation in DCMS sector programmes and attitudes, beliefs and values outcomes, with variation in relation to the specific attitudes, beliefs and values within this grouping. 
• Based on 26 studies rated above SMS Level 2: Culture (4), Sport (18) other youth activities (4).

Key outcomes

• Belonging [3 studies], flourishing [5], self-esteem [10], motivation [5], and self-efficacy [3]

Key Findings

• There is strong evidence which shows that participation in DCMS initiatives can be linked to improvements in self-esteem, a sense of belonging, increased motivation, and overall flourishing. 
• These positive attitudinal shifts are crucial for promoting wellbeing and resilience and indirectly support the Opportunity Mission by empowering individuals to pursue their goals and contribute to society.

Overview

The development of positive attitudes, beliefs and values through participation in DCMS sector programmes reoccurs throughout the literature identified by this review. These have a clear link to the target impacts of the Opportunity Mission given the focus across the mission pillars on ensuring that children and young people thrive, within which their attitudes, values and beliefs can play an important role. These attitudes, beliefs and values outcomes are therefore an important component of the Theory of Change, and with 26 studies rated SMS Level 2 or above demonstrating a link to these outcomes, there is strong evidence to support this. 

Given the intangible nature of these outcomes, there are variations in definition and interpretation across the literature. However, the key categories of outcome identified within this category (discussed in detail below) can be summarised as: 

• Belonging: a connection with, and affinity for, a group or environment
• Flourishing: feeling good and doing well 
• Self-esteem: how one feels about oneself, including a sense of and confidence in one’s abilities, value and worth
• Motivation: desire and aspiration to achieve personal goals and objectives
• Self-efficacy: confidence and competence, i.e.  individual belief in one’s ability 

We found evidence of each of these outcomes across the DCMS sectors when considered in aggregate. However, as with other outcome areas, there was variation in the evidence identified across sectors, and a greater quantity of evidence in relation to sport and physical activity. Table 8.1 summarises this variation by assessing the quantity and relative strength of evidence.

Sections 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4 discuss the detail of the evidence identified with respect to culture, sport and other youth initiatives. Drawing these findings together, we consider that: 

There is limited evidence of the links between DCMS sector participation and developing a sense of belonging.

• This review identified a highly robust (SMS Level 5) study demonstrating the links between participation in entrepreneurial education programmes and a sense of belonging, including in educational settings (a core objective of the Opportunity Mission). The literature also highlighted the potential for engagement with the arts and sports to foster belonging – team sports, for instance, were associated with greater levels of socioemotional support and social interaction. However, across all sectors we identified only 3 studies that demonstrate these links. 

There is a wide range of evidence demonstrating the potential for participation in DCMS sector programmes to have a positive effect on individual flourishing and self-esteem.

• We identified 5 studies across the three sectors that identified a link to flourishing, and 10 studies linked to self-esteem. The greatest quantity of evidence was associated with sports programmes, where team sports offered opportunities to achieve a sense of accomplishment, confidence and experience higher levels of subjective wellbeing. Participation in cultural programmes can lead to similar outcomes, albeit with slightly less evidence demonstrating this link. There is a relative lack of evidence in relation to the potential for other youth programmes to contribute to this outcome. 

There is also strong evidence linking participation in sport and other (non-culture) youth programmes to motivation and self-efficacy.

• The strongest evidence (SMS Level 4) relates to the role of social-emotional and character development programmes in supporting academic motivation and a desire to achieve. However, this review also identified four studies linking physical activity with higher motivation, and two studies linking it with self-efficacy. This review did not identify evidence that culture programmes contribute to these outcomes, though as with others, this does not disprove an association. 

The literature highlighted several key mechanisms by which DCMS sector participation influences attitudes, beliefs, and values. Like individual skills and knowledge, these outcomes often serve as interim steps towards longer-term outcomes such as improved educational attainment, enhanced employment prospects, and increased civic engagement, as outlined in the Theory of Change.

One set of pathways works through the development of self-perception and identity. Participation in sports has been strongly associated with improved self-esteem and self-efficacy. For instance, one study found that sports participation in schools significantly contributed to enhanced emotional wellbeing, increased self-esteem, and a positive outlook on future expectations (Denovan and Dagnall, 2023). Similarly, involvement in artistic, musical, and theatrical activities was linked to increased self-esteem among young adults (Bone et al., 2023).

A second set of pathways operates through fostering a sense of belonging and community connection. Team sports, for example, were associated with greater levels of emotional social support, sense of belonging, and social interaction (Owen et al., 2024). In the cultural sector, attending museums can ‘reinforce attitudes and beliefs of belonging’ and understanding within communities (Olivares and Piatak, 2021).

The evidence also points to pathways that shape motivation and aspirations. Participation in uniformed group activities was linked to greater civic-mindedness and a desire to improve one’s local community (See et al., 2017). In the context of sports, participation was associated with higher motivation and academic aspirations (Fujiwara et al., 2015).

It’s important to note that while the Theory of Change suggests similar pathways across all DCMS sectors, the evidence for attitudes, beliefs, and values outcomes varied in strength and quantity across sectors. The evidence was particularly strong for sports and physical activity, with numerous studies demonstrating improvements in self-esteem, motivation, and sense of belonging. The evidence for cultural activities and other youth programs, while present, was somewhat less extensive for certain outcomes.

In alignment with the Theory of Change, these attitudes, beliefs, and values outcomes serve as important mediators between participation in DCMS sector activities and longer-term outcomes. By fostering positive self-perceptions, a sense of belonging, and increased motivation, DCMS sector participation creates a mindset conducive to personal growth, academic success, and community engagement. This underscores the crucial role of attitudinal and motivational factors in translating DCMS sector participation into broader life outcomes.

Considered as a whole, these highlight the strong evidence that participation in DCMS sector programmes can support increased self-esteem, belonging, motivation and overall flourishing. By supporting mindsets that empower individuals to pursue and achieve their goals, and thrive in and out of educational settings, these outcomes subsequently contribute to the Opportunity Mission. While evidence of these links existed across the three sectors, the greatest quantity of evidence was found in relation to sport, while the most robust evidence relates to other (non-sport, non-culture) youth programmes. 

Table 1.3: Breakdown of evidence strength – number of studies broken down by SMS Level

Table uses strength of evidence based on ‘The Maryland Scientific Methods Scale’ (SMS)

	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Other youth programs	Other youth programs	Other youth programs	Other youth programs
Outcome	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5
Belonging	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	1
Flourishing	0	1	0	0	0	3	0	0	1	0	0	0
Self-esteem	1	1	0	0	1	6	1	0	0	0	0	0
Motivation	0	0	0	0	2	2	0	0	0	0	1	0
Self-efficacy	0	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	1	0	0	0

Culture and creative industries

Participation in culture has identity related outcomes, including self-esteem, belonging and flourishing. 

Self-esteem

• Involvement in artistic, musical, and theatrical activities was seen to increase self-esteem among young adults; however, findings were only statistically significant in metropolitan areas (Bone et al., 2023). 
• Participation in arts and music were not only found to increase self-esteem in participants but also found to provide value for money. Using per person figures, which reflect the benefits to individuals, NHS and social care cost savings, and productivity benefits, it was found that engagement with arts had a positive influence on self-esteem for 10–14-year-olds, and an economic value of £134pp. Similarly, music was found to have a positive influence on individual self-esteem for 10–14-year-olds, with an economic value of £68pp (Frontier Economics, 2024). 

Belonging

Cultural activities offer opportunities for participants to interact and connect with others. As such, it is unsurprising that ‘belonging’ comprises a core outcome area within this ToC.

• Attending museums was seen to ‘reinforce attitudes and beliefs of belonging’ and understanding within communities (Olivares and Piatak, 2021: 129). 

Flourishing

Following definitions from the literature and from the Department for Education, flourishing can be understood as ‘feeling good’ and ‘doing well’ in all aspects of life, and it involves high levels of subjective wellbeing. 

• One study found that increases in the frequency of arts engagement was associated with increases of flourishing. Flourishing was measured by asking participants how often in the past month they had experienced 14 positive indicators of subjective wellbeing. There was a dose-response relationship, where increasing from no arts engagement to weekly arts engagement was associated with a 0.28-point increase in flourishing, equivalent to a 2.09% increase in flourishing (Bone et al., 2023). 

Motivation

The literature review did not identify any studies with an SMS-level of 2 or higher which demonstrated a link between culture and the creative industries and motivation. This does not disprove an association with this outcome. 

Self-efficacy

The literature review did not identify any studies with an SMS-level of 2 or higher which demonstrated a link between culture and the creative industries and self-efficacy. This does not disprove an association with this outcome

Sport and Physical Activity 

Belonging

• A study investigating the relationships between sports participation, mental toughness, self-efficacy, and wellbeing indicators among Year 9 and 10 secondary school students in the UK found that the sports participation index is positively correlated with sense of belonging and social identity. The statistical model showed sports participation strongly predicted greater social identity and belonging (Denovan and Dagnall, 2023).

Flourishing

• A study investigating whether active outdoor play and sports participation at age 10 predicted physical activity at a later age found that, unlike unstructured outdoor play, team sports participation conferred psychosocial benefits that sustain physical activity, by making the child feel competent, autonomous and part of a valued social unit (Smith,2015).
• Students participating in the 3 days/week before-school physical activity programme (Build Our Kids Success (BOKS) showed improvements in student engagement scores and nonsignificant improvements in reported peer relationships, affect, and life satisfaction compared to controls (Whooten et al., 2018).

Self-esteem

• Engagement in structured sports activities during childhood not only fosters a lifelong habit of physical activity, but it may also contribute positively to psychological wellbeing, including the enhancement of self-esteem. As suggested by Smith et al. (2015), in a study investigating whether active outdoor play and sports participation at age 10 predicted physical activity at a later age, found that those who frequently participated in sports at age 10 were more likely to remain active as adults, indicating that such early involvement helps cultivate skills, confidence, and social connections, all of which are essential components of healthy self-esteem development (Smith et al., 2015).
• A study also suggests that higher levels of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during early adolescence are linked to reduced depressive symptoms and emotional difficulties, indicating that physical activity may bolster self-esteem. This enhanced self-esteem potentially acts as a protective factor against depression, as adolescents with a healthy self-regard are better equipped to handle emotional and behavioural challenges. (Booth et al., 2023).
• An Australian 2024 study focusing on the long-term patterns of sport participation from childhood into adolescence and their association with various academic outcomes found that team sports are associated with a greater level of emotional social support, sense of belonging, higher self-esteem, social network, and social interaction (Owen et al., 2024).
• A study investigating the relationships between sports participation, mental toughness, self-efficacy, and wellbeing indicators among Year 9 and 10 secondary school students in the UK found that participation in school sports and physical activity significantly contributes to mental health improvements, evidenced by enhanced emotional wellbeing, increased self-esteem, and a positive outlook on future expectations (Denovan and Dagnall, 2023).
• A study shows that participation in school sports is closely linked to enhanced academic achievement and improved self-esteem. This connection is particularly significant as the research indicates that school based physical activities can foster motivation and enjoyment in sports, leading to lifelong benefits. Moreover, these activities contribute significantly to the wellbeing of students, especially for those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, by providing free and equitable access to physical activity that supports both academic and personal development (State of Life, 2024).

Motivation

• A study analysing the health and educational benefits of engaging in culture and sports activities found that physical activity participation was linked to higher academic achievement and aspirations, higher motivation, improved creativity, resilience, self-regulation, self-identity, self-esteem, and academic self-concept (Fujiwara et al., 2015).
• Those participating in an after-school volleyball group demonstrated greater enjoyment compared to the control group during the intervention. The authors suggest the volleyball programme reduces aggression by increasing motivation (Trajkovi et al., 2020).
• A study on how personal control and educational attainment relate to physical activity and lifelong health highlighted that personal control is an important individual difference variable that can influence motivation to engage in physical activity. High personal control was found to enhance beliefs that one can control their environment to achieve important life goals (Zhou et al., 2021).

Youth 

The literature search identified relatively few studies demonstrating the impact of youth initiatives on attitudes, beliefs and values among children and young people. However, this review has identified some limited evidence to suggest that participation has a positive influence on individual flourishing, feelings of self-efficacy, motivation and belonging. 

Belonging

• Significant belonging outcomes were observed for ethnic minorities in a study assessing the impacts of an entrepreneurship education programme. The Arrowhead Business Group programme, which educated Native American youth on entrepreneurship knowledge, economic empowerment and social wellbeing, observed significant improvements in school connectedness, interpreted in this paper as a proxy for belonging. The intervention group demonstrated a 0.08-point increase on the Hemingway Measure of Adolescent Connectedness, compared to an 0.11 decrease for the control group (intervention group 3.42 to 3.50 vs. Control 3.44 to 3.33, p = 0.036). Similar patterns were observed for awareness of connectedness (Tingey et al., 2020).

Flourishing

• Participating in volunteering activities at least once per week was associated with twice the likelihood of psychological flourishing than not volunteering. The sense of purpose that volunteers receive through volunteering, combined with the opportunities for social connectedness and integration contributed to one’s mental wellbeing and psychological flourishing (Santini et al., 2019).

Motivation

• Research evaluating the impact of School based socioemotional and character development programmes (SECD) like the Positive Action (PA) programme found that participating students demonstrated reduced disaffection with learning and academic motivation, becoming more actively engaged in their learning and demonstrating a greater desire to achieve (Bavarian et al., 2013).

Self-efficacy

• One study found a statistically significant relationship between participation in Scouting and self-efficacy. Results demonstrated that the longer a respondent had been involved in Scouting, the more likely they were to report feelings of confidence and competence (Kim et al., 2016).

Self-esteem

• The literature review did not identify any studies with an SMS-level of 2 or higher which demonstrated a link between youth initiatives (outside of culture and sport) and self-esteem. This does not disprove an association with this outcome. 

The table giving an overview of the evidence review used for these outcomes can be found in Annex C- table 12.5 

Civic impact outcomes

Summary of findings

Evidence reviewed

• There is some strong evidence linking participation in DCMS sector programmes and civic impact outcomes, however, the quantity of evidence is limited.
• Based on 15 studies rated above SMS Level 2: Culture (5), Sport (3) and other youth activities (7).

Key outcomes

• Volunteering [3 studies], community [3], civic identity and civic participation [4], reduced antisocial behaviour [4], and reduced violence [1]

Key findings

• There is strong evidence demonstrating that involvement in cultural, sporting, and youth activities increases civic participation and reduces antisocial behaviour. 
• The evidence demonstrates a strong association with participation and enhanced communal ties and civic responsibility. 
• These civic impacts align closely with the social benefits, by fostering community engagement and reducing anti-social behaviour, discussed in sections on employment and attitudes, demonstrating a comprehensive contribution to social capital. 
• Enhanced community cohesion feeds back into improving environments for employment and education.

Overview

Across the literature reviewed, there is strong evidence of civic impact outcomes flowing from participation in DCMS sector activities, with 15 studies rated SMS Level 2 or above demonstrating a link. Within this, there are two studies that meet the highest level of robustness – SMS Level 5 – and demonstrate this link, both of which relate to other youth programmes outside of culture and sport. While this is less evidenced in quantitative terms than we find for some other outcome areas, this likely reflects some of the difficulties of measuring these impacts where they are more intangible. 

The key outcomes identified within this category (discussed in detail below) can be summarised as: 

• Volunteering: an increase in time spent volunteering for charity or community organisations
• Community: increased engagement and identification with local communities, such as through engagement with neighbours and local groups
• Civic identity and civic participation: increased participation in civic life, such as an increased propensity to vote and take part of local initiatives (noting some overlap with the volunteering and community outcomes) 
• Antisocial behaviour: reduced anti-social behaviour, and physical and verbal aggression
• Violence: reduced violence and crime (including a reduction in arrests). 

We found evidence of each of these outcomes across the DCMS sectors when considered in aggregate, including studies that meet the highest level of robustness. However, there was variation in evidence across DCMS sectors – while some outcomes were seen across all three sectors, others had more limited sectoral coverage (for instance, we did not identify evidenced links to reduced anti-social behaviour and violence through culture and sport programmes). Table 9.1 summarises this variation by assessing the quantity and relative strength of evidence.

Sections 9.2, 9.3 and 9.4 discuss the detail of the evidence identified with respect to culture, sport and other youth initiatives. Drawing these findings together, we consider that: 

There is strong (SMS Level 3) evidence that participation in culture and sport programmes support increased volunteering among children and young people.

The studies reviewed indicated that engaging in any sport increased the likelihood of frequent volunteering by 3%, while involvement in the arts had an even stronger effect. This review did not, however, identify any evidence linking other youth programmes and increased volunteering. 

There is significant and strong evidence that participation in all three DCMS sectors supports increased community engagement and civic identity.

The strongest (SMS Level 5) evidence in this area related to other (non-culture, non-sport) youth initiatives, where we found a strong link between uniformed youth and civic impacts, including a desire to improve their local community. However, across the other sectors we found evidence that those who participate in the arts, especially those from low socioeconomic backgrounds, were more likely to engage in civic activities such as reading newspapers and participating in political campaigns. 

There is very robust evidence that other (non-culture, non-sport) youth initiatives can support reductions in anti-social behaviour and violence.

One SMS Level 5 study finds that youth summer employment programmes, for instance, drove a 43% decrease in violence over 16 months. While we find no other evidence of reductions in violence, we do find strong (SMS Level 3) evidence of reductions in antisocial behaviour through participation in sport, and youth clubs (where a reduction in the provision of youth clubs led to increases in anti-social behaviour). The literature did not identify an evidenced link between participation in culture and reduced anti-social behaviour and violence. 

The literature highlights several key mechanisms by which DCMS sector participation leads to civic impact outcomes. These outcomes, while valuable in their own right, also contribute to the broader goals of social cohesion and community development that can support the long-term objectives of the Opportunity Mission, as outlined in the Theory of Change.

One set of pathways works through increased civic engagement and volunteering. Participation in cultural activities was strongly associated with a greater inclination to volunteer and engage in civic life. For instance, young adults who participated in arts were much more likely to participate in civic activities, including reading newspapers, volunteering, and joining in political campaigns (Catterall et al., 2012). Similarly, engaging in any sport was associated with a 3% increase in the likelihood of frequent volunteering (Fujiwara et al., 2014).

A second set of pathways operates through the development of community connections and social capital. Participation in extracurricular clubs for students with autism, for example, was found to provide a sense of shared purpose and act as a locus for social interaction (McDaniel et al., 2022). In the sports sector, engaging in sport with others has been linked to building social capital through making contacts that can be useful in professional work (Metelski, 2018).

The evidence also points to pathways that reduce antisocial behaviour and violence. Youth employment programs, such as the One Summer Plus Programme, were linked to significant reductions in violent crime arrests among disadvantaged youth (Heller, 2014). In the sports sector, participation in organized sport was associated with lower rates of anti-social behaviour (Denovan and Dagnall, 2023).

It’s important to note that while the Theory of Change suggests similar pathways across all DCMS sectors, the evidence for civic impact outcomes varies in strength and quantity across sectors. The evidence is particularly strong for youth programs outside of culture and sport, with robust studies demonstrating impacts on volunteering, community engagement, and reduced antisocial behaviour. The evidence for cultural activities and sports, while present, is somewhat less extensive for certain outcomes

In alignment with the Theory of Change, these civic impact outcomes serve as important contributors to the overall goal of social mobility. By fostering community engagement, reducing antisocial behaviour, and building social capital, DCMS sector participation helps create supportive community environments that can enhance educational and employment opportunities. 

Assessed collectively, these highlight the strong evidence that involvement in DCMS sector initiatives increases civic participation and reduces antisocial behaviour. These communal ties align with many of the other outcome areas identified – particularly in relation to attitudes, values and beliefs – and support the development of an individual mindset and community environment to foster education and employment outcomes that sit at the core of the Opportunity Mission.

Table 1.4: Breakdown of evidence strength – number of studies broken down by SMS Level

Table uses strength of evidence based on ‘The Maryland Scientific Methods Scale’ (SMS)

	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Other youth programs	Other youth programs	Other youth programs	Other youth programs
Outcome	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5
Volunteering	1	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0
Community	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2	0	0
Civic identity and Civic participation	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	1
Antisocial behaviour	0	0	0	0	0	2	0	0	0	2	0	0
Violence	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1

Culture and creative industries

Engagement with culture was linked to numerous civic impacts. These benefits are felt by individuals but also have a positive impact on the wider community. Civic outcomes include volunteering, pride, community, civic identity and civic participation. 

Volunteering

• In both low and high socioeconomic groups, 13/14-year-olds with a history of participation in cultural activities were more likely to volunteer than those who did not regularly participate in culture. Seven in ten (70%) individuals from a high socioeconomic background, who participated in arts activities frequently, volunteered within the past two years, compared with 53% of those who did not participate in the arts (Catterall et al., 2012). 

• Almost half (47%) of individuals from low socioeconomic backgrounds who participated in the arts volunteered within the past two years, compared with a quarter (26%) of individuals with the same financial background but with low/ no arts participation (Catterall et al., 2012).

• Watching cultural performances was a predictor of volunteering in adulthood. Individuals who attended the theatre, watched classical music or dance performances as a child were 57.6% more likely than those who did not to volunteer their time as an adult (Garrod and Dowell, 2020).

Community

• Another study found that participation in the arts can have an impact on one’s outcomes in community life. Results demonstrated that increasing engagement in culture from no engagement to weekly engagement led to a 4.5% increase in social wellbeing, and an increase from no engagement to daily engagement was equivalent to a 6.5% increase in social wellbeing (Bone et al., 2023).  

Civic identity and civic participation

• Involvement in culture was associated with a greater inclination to participate in civic life. Young adults who participated in arts were much more likely to participate in civic activities, including reading newspapers, volunteering, and joining in a political campaign than young adults who did not (Catterall et al., 2012). 

• The impact of cultural participation on civic engagement among groups from low socioeconomic backgrounds was especially pronounced. Individuals from low socioeconomic backgrounds who participated frequently in arts were more likely to be registered to vote (78%), vote in a local election (43%), and vote in a general election (45%) than those who came from the same socioeconomic background but did not participate in the arts (67%, 29%and 31%, respectively) (Catterall et al., 2012). 

• Childhood participation in cultural activities has been linked to the development of prosocial civic behaviours, which benefit both the individuals taking part, and society more broadly. Cultural participation was found to have a significant effect on one’s propensity to volunteer as an adult and donate money to charities (Garrod and Dowell, 2020). 

Antisocial behaviour

The literature review did not identify any studies with an SMS-level of 2 or higher which demonstrated a link between culture and the creative industries and antisocial behaviour. This does not disprove an association with this outcome. 

Violence

The literature review did not identify any studies with an SMS-level of 2 or higher which demonstrated a link between culture and the creative industries and violence. This does not disprove an association with this outcome. 

Sport and Physical Activity 

While the relationship between sports participation, physical activity, and civic impact outcomes was explored in some studies, the available evidence is limited. The literature reviewed provided some insights into the potential effects of sports and physical activity on volunteering and antisocial behaviour. However, further research is needed to establish a more comprehensive understanding of how engaging in sports and physical activity may influence these civic outcomes:

Volunteering

• A study commissioned by DCMS and carried out by the London School of Economics investigated the association between participation in culture and sports and a range of social outcomes like health, education, employment and civic participation. It showed that engaging in any sport is associated with a 3% increase in likelihood of frequent volunteering. This correlation suggests that engaging in sports activities not only enriches personal health and wellbeing but also fosters community involvement through volunteering (Fujiwara et al., 2014).

Antisocial behaviour

• Adolescents in the small-sided volleyball (SSV) group showed larger reductions in aggression compared to the control group that only did regular PE classes. This included reductions in physical aggression, verbal aggression, and anger. Girls in the SSV group showed reductions in physical aggression, verbal aggression, and anger, while boys only reduced physical aggression significantly (Trajkovi et al., 2020).
• Furthermore, a study investigating the relationships between sports participation, mental toughness, self-efficacy, and wellbeing indicators among Year 9 and 10 secondary school students in the UK found that participation in organised sport was associated with behavioural gains. These included lower rates of anti-social behaviour, better school attendance, and higher attainment (Denovan and Dagnall, 2023).

Civic participation, community, civic identity, violence

• The literature review did not identify any studies with an SMS-level of 2 or higher which demonstrated a link between sport or physical activity and the following outcomes: Civic participation, Community, Civic identity, Violence. This does not disprove an association with these outcomes.

Youth 

Participation in youth initiatives was associated with positive civic outcomes, both for the participating individual and for the wider community. Outcomes included a reduction in crime and antisocial behaviour, civic engagement and participation and a bolstered sense of community. 

Violence

• Employment was evidenced to reduce crime and violence among disadvantaged youths. Initiatives like the One Summer Plus Programme (OSP), which help at-risk youth into work, were linked to significant reductions in violence crime arrests. Results from the OSP, which explored outcomes for youth from predominantly black and ethnic minority groups, and those who are eligible for free school meals, demonstrated a 43% decrease in violence over 16 months, equivalent to 3.95 fewer violent-crime arrests per 100 youth (Heller, 2014).

Antisocial behaviour

• Research into the closure of youth clubs between 2010 to 2019 found that closures led to increases in youth crime. The study identified a rise of 14% in mean average offending rates among young people, and a 32% increase for individuals who would have attended youth clubs. The absolute number of crimes committed by young people increased by around 3 crimes per 1,000 young people (Villa, 2024). 
• DCMS’ study of youth provision and life outcomes found that a decrease in youth provision has a statistically significant association with increased youth crime and antisocial behaviour, and reoffending. A 1% decrease in youth provision expenditure was related to an increase of 1.03 children cautioned or sentenced in the local authority. Other statistically significant relationships were found between a decrease in S251 expenditure and increases to the number of bicycle theft offences, the number of weapon possession offences, and the number of shoplifting offences (Millard and Hutchinson, 2024). 

Civic participation and civic engagement

• A study into the impact of uniformed group activities found that participants demonstrated greater civic mindedness than their non-participating peers. Students who were involved in the activities were more likely to volunteer, more likely to report being socially responsible about clearing up mess rather than wanting others to do it, and more likely to demonstrate a desire to make their local place a better place to live (See et al., 2017). 
• Individuals who participate in scouting over an extended period of time were found to demonstrate high levels of civic engagement. Scouting was found to help foster traits vital to active citizenship, like self-confidence, respect for diversity, and compassion for others (Kim et al., 2016). 

Community

• Facilitators of extracurricular activities for students with autism reported that clubs provided participants with a sense of shared purpose and acted as a locus for social interaction. Participation was positively associated with developments to communication and collaboration, enabling individuals to connect with others and work together towards common goals (McDaniel et al., 2022). 
• Participation in social action initiatives was associated with greater feelings of community investment. Kirkman et al found that young people who participated in youth social action programmes showed a greater level of community investment (6.8) than those who in the control group (6.35) (Kirkman et al., 2016). 

Volunteering

• The literature review did not identify any studies with an SMS-level of 2 or higher which demonstrated a link between youth initiatives (outside of culture and sport) and volunteering. This does not disprove an association with this outcome. 

The table giving an overview of the evidence review used for these outcomes can be found in Annex C- table 12.6.

Employment outcomes

Summary of findings

Evidence reviewed

• A limited and weak direct link between participation in DCMS sector programmes and employment outcomes, with the most robust evidence found in relation to other (non-culture and non-sport) youth initiatives.
• Based on 6 studies rated above SMS Level 2: Culture (0), Sport (4) and other Youth activities (2).

Key outcomes

• Increased employment [4 studies] and increased income [2]

Key findings

• The evidence linking DCMS sector participation with employment outcomes is somewhat sparse and mixed. 
• There is no evidence relating cultural activities to employment outcomes which represents a key evidence gap. Much of the connection remains correlative rather than causal. 
• The development of individual skills documented in Section 7 could be used to support the notion that participation can enhance employability via skills development.

Overview

Across the literature identified, this review found very limited robust evidence linking participation in any DCMS sector to employment outcomes, with only 6 studies rated SMS Level 2 or above demonstrating a link. Within this relatively sparse evidence however, this review did identify 2 studies rated SMS Level 5. We therefore do find some strong links between DCMS sector participation and employment, though this evidence is sparse and limited. 

The key outcomes identified within this category (discussed in detail below) occur over the long term – given employment outcomes will, by definition, be seen during adulthood while the initiatives target children and young people – and can be summarised as: 

• Employment: the state of having a paid job or being engaged in a gainful economic activity.
• Income: money or other forms of compensation received by an individual or household over a given period (including wages, salaries and other forms of earnings).

While we find some, limited evidence of these outcomes across the DCMS sectors when considered in aggregate, the limited nature of the evidence is such that there is variation between the evidence that exists across the different sectors. In particular, while this review has identified evidence linking sport and other youth initiatives with employment outcomes over the long term, it has found no evidence linking culture programmes with those outcomes. Table 10.1 summarises this variation by assessing the quantity and relative strength of evidence.

Sections 10.2, 10.3 and 10.4 discuss the detail of the evidence identified with respect to culture, sport and other youth initiatives. Drawing these findings together, we consider that: 

The limited evidence of employment outcomes identified through this review may reflect the difficulty of establishing causality between participation as a young person in DCMS sector programmes and fundamentally long-term employment outcomes such as improved income. The absence of evidence does not, therefore, necessarily disprove such a link, particularly given the existence of some highly robust evidence (albeit limited in quantity). Additionally, these outcomes can also be influenced by many other factors for which there is more evidence that DCMS sectors can support, such as education and individual skills and knowledge. It is therefore possible that participation has a positive effect on these other outcomes which can in turn impact these employment outcomes however over the longer term, this connection is not clear in the literature.

• Notwithstanding the above, there is a limited quantity of highly robust evidence indicating a link between participation in sport and other youth initiatives (uniformed youth) and employment outcomes. This includes one SMS Level 5 study and one SMS Level 4 study, providing confidence of the existence of a link despite the sparse nature of the evidence. This review has not identified evidence of such a link for participation in culture programmes. This does not necessarily disprove an association with improved employment prospects. For instance, we might anticipate that participation in culture programmes could support future employment in the creative industries, though this is not evidenced in the literature identified through this review. 

• There is more limited evidence of the link between DCMS sector programmes and income improvements over the long term. There is one SMS Level 5 study demonstrating a link between youth empowerment programmes and income generating capacity, providing a robust indication of the existence of such a link. However, this review has identified only two studies linked to income improvements, of which none relate to participation in culture. As above, this does not necessarily disprove such an association given the likely challenges of measuring this outcome over the long term. 

The literature reveals several mechanisms by which DCMS sector participation can lead to improved employment outcomes, although it’s important to note that the evidence in this area is more limited and less robust compared to other outcome categories.

One key pathway operates through the development of skills and competencies that are valuable in the labour market. Participation in sports, for example, has been associated with the acquisition of communication, teamwork, organisation, and goal-pursuit skills (Metelski, 2018). These transferable skills can enhance employability and job performance across various sectors. Similarly, involvement in uniformed group activities has been linked to greater career aspirations (See et al., 2017), suggesting that these programs may help shape career related attitudes and goals.

A second pathway works through the expansion of social networks and the building of social capital. Engaging in sports with others provides opportunities to build social capital through making contacts that can be useful in professional work (Metelski, 2018). This network-building aspect of DCMS sector participation can facilitate access to job opportunities and career advancement.

A third pathway works via increasing motivation and aspiration for employment.  Participating in cultural and creative pursuits from a young age may inspire some individuals to pursue careers in those fields by providing role models and showcasing viable career paths. The self-efficacy and self-esteem gains from excelling in sports or youth leadership roles can motivate people to ambitiously pursue employment and promotions. Furthermore, positive youth development programs kindle inspiration to seek meaningful work that contributes to society, providing a sense of purpose that motivates active job seeking. (See et al., 2017; Gulesci et al., 2021)

The evidence also suggests an indirect pathway through educational engagement and attainment. Participation in extracurricular activities, including sports clubs, during secondary school has been associated with a higher likelihood of being in employment or education at ages 21/22 (Robinson, 2024). This suggests that DCMS sector participation may support employment outcomes by first enhancing educational outcomes and engagement.

It’s important to note that while the Theory of Change suggests similar pathways across all DCMS sectors, the evidence for employment outcomes is limited and varies across sectors. The strongest evidence relates to sports and other youth initiatives, with less evidence available for cultural activities. This represents a gap between the Theory of Change and the current evidence base, particularly for the cultural sector.

Moreover, the long-term nature of employment outcomes presents challenges in establishing direct links. Many of the employment benefits may be realized through the intermediate outcomes of improved education, skills development, and social capital formation, as suggested in the Theory of Change. However, more longitudinal research would be needed to fully validate these pathways.

In alignment with the Theory of Change, these employment outcomes represent longer-term impacts that are likely enabled and supported by the more immediate outcomes in health, education, and skills development. The pathways to employment outcomes show how different benefits from DCMS sector participation work together over time. Improvements in health, education, and skills can build on each other to support better employment prospects in the long run.

Assessed as a whole, these outcomes suggest that there is potential for participation in DCMS sector programmes as a child to support positive employment outcomes into adulthood, though the direct evidence is sparse. This likely reflects the difficulty of measuring these outcomes robustly over the long term. There is therefore value in considering these outcomes in the context of other outcomes that can support the progression to good employment in the longer term, namely skills and knowledge development. 

Breakdown of evidence strength – number of studies broken down by SMS Level

Table uses strength of evidence based on ‘The Maryland Scientific Methods Scale’ (SMS)

	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Culture and creative industries	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Sport and physical activity	Other youth programs	Other youth programs	Other youth programs	Other youth programs
Outcome	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5	L2	L3	L4	L5
Employment	0	0	0	0	0	2	1	0	0	0	0	1
Income	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	1

Culture and creative industries

The literature review did not uncover any evidence rated level 2 or higher on the SMS scale which directly linked participation in cultural activities to employment outcomes.

However, this does not disprove an association with employment outcomes. Given that employment outcomes would arise over the long term, this may reflect an absence of longer-term evaluations in this space. Equally, we may expect there to be some overlaps between the other outcomes for which there is evidence namely, educational outcomes and individual skills and knowledge, which might support positive employment outcomes over the longer-term. Likewise, we might expect participation in cultural initiatives to support (or act as a precondition for) future employment in the cultural or creative industries sectors. 

There are therefore potential logical links between culture initiatives and employment outcomes which are not seen in the evidence but are not disproved. 

Sport and Physical Activity 

While there is some evidence suggesting a positive relationship between sports participation/ physical activity and employment outcomes, the available research on this topic is limited. A few studies have explored the potential links between engaging in sports during school years and future employment status, job satisfaction, and income. However, more extensive research is needed to establish a robust connection between sports participation and improved employment prospects. The following findings provide a glimpse into the potential benefits of sports participation in relation to employment, income, and productivity:

Employment

• One study that looked into access to extra-curricular activities during secondary school and the longer-term outcomes of students who do participate found a positive association between attending sports clubs in secondary school and being in employment or education aged 21/22. This would be an equivalent to an increase in the odds of being in employment or education of 42 per cent (Robinson, 2024).

• Additionally, the study found that vulnerable students are less likely to participate in sports clubs. Children with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) are 23% less likely to participate, while children eligible for free school meals are 11% less likely. Females were found to be 12% less likely to attend than males (Robinson, 2024).

• The 2014 study from London School of Economics, focusing on the association between participation in culture and sports and a range of social outcomes like health, education, employment and civic participation, showed that participation in any sport is associated with an 11% increase in the likelihood of an unemployed person having looked for a job in the last 4 weeks. For arts engagement it was 12%. Team sports participation has been associated with higher job satisfaction, while participating in arts is associated with lower job satisfaction (Fujiwara et al., 2014).

Income

• A study used data from the Social Diagnosis survey in Poland between 2009-2015 to examine the relationship between physical activity and income levels. There was a significant difference in income between people who practiced sport and those who did not: People practicing sport earned about 500 PLN (Polish Zloty) more per month on average compared to physically inactive people. Additionally, undertaking physical activity was connected with a higher average increase in income over time, while discontinuation of physical activity was connected with a lower average increase in income. The results suggest that physical activity is an investment in human capital that brings measurable benefits in one’s professional career, such as higher income (Metelski, 2018).

Youth 

Employment

• A study into the impact of uniformed group activities found that participants demonstrated greater career aspirations than non-participating peers (See et al., 2017). 

Income

• Participating in a youth empowerment programme was evidenced to have a positive effect on earnings for girls.  A randomised control trial conducted by Gulesci et al in Bolivia found that participating girls demonstrated higher income-generating capacity, and their mean income was 41% higher, than girls in the control group. Significantly, the type of wage earned differed between the groups. Intervention group girls were 8 percentage points less likely to report earning money from wage labour and were 2 percentage points more likely to report earning income from self-employment (Gulesci et al., 2021). 

The table giving an overview of the evidence review used for these outcomes can be found in Annex C- table 12.3.

Policy implications

The Theory of Change provides an evidence-based narrative for how policy interventions across DCMS sectors – culture and the creative industries, sport and physical activity, and other youth initiatives – can contribute to the Opportunity Mission when designed and delivered effectively by government, civil society and other local partners. Across the six core outcomes identified, participation in programmes in DCMS sectors contributes to key drivers of the Opportunity Mission pillars, such as skills and wellbeing, which can raise attainment, build capabilities, and support children and young people in progressing to good employment, education, and training. 

Key implications 

Drawing on the findings of the literature review and Theory of Change, we identify three main policy implications from this review. Given that this project focussed on finding robust evidence of the concrete outcomes link to the target impacts of the Opportunity Mission, these implications are fundamentally cross-cutting. As such, they would benefit from further research to apply a more granular, sector-specific lens to each. 

Sustained participation

Sustained participation is key. The benefits that flow from DCMS sector programmes, whether in relation to health, education, employment, skills, attitudes or civic impacts, cannot occur in the absence of sustained participation irrespective of whether the other foundations for the sector are in place. The outcomes identified are not likely to be realised through individual or infrequent instances of participation in DCMS sector initiatives, and the availability and accessibility of high-quality facilities staffed by trained volunteers and workers are unlikely to yield results in the absence of children and young people engaging with those services. 

This points towards the need for policy to focus on facilitating sustained engagement with culture, sport and other youth programmes through making the case for participation, such as by engaging trusted adults, and being responsive to children and young peoples’ interests so that they want to participate. It also highlights the importance of reducing barriers to sustained participation, such as physical accessibility/proximity of facilities, availability of programming, capacity of voluntary/community organisations, and potentially wider social services. Within this context, policy makers may also wish to focus on early engagement of children and their trusted adults, given that the Theory of Change will take time to play through. As the ultimate impacts of social and income mobility are long—term social changes, engaging with DCMS sectors at a young age may maximise the effectiveness of interventions.

This review has not, however, identified a clear view of how much participation is required to achieve the outcomes identified or the extent to which this varies across sectors or contexts. There is therefore merit in further research in this area (see section 11.3). 

Common pathways

The common pathways identified across Culture, Sport and other Youth programmes suggest that there is more commonality than difference across the DCMS sectors, and that there are therefore a set of key focus areas for supporting the Opportunity Mission. Regardless of sector, DCMS interventions should prioritise the key drivers of sustained participation and engagement outlined in this report, such as reducing cost barriers, improving physical accessibility, engaging trusted adults, and responding to the interests of children and young people. 

Through addressing barriers to engagement and encouraging sustained participation, this review found that programmes in any DCMS sector can support the target outcomes that underpin the Opportunity Mission. At the same time, despite the potential for all sectors to contribute to the mission, the relative impact of different sectors may vary for specific groups and areas (including but not limited to those that are underserved) in line with their motivations and interests. To maximise the mission’s impact, there is a case for prioritising resources toward the DCMS sectors and interventions that are likely to have the greatest reach and resonance with target communities, based on their local contexts, interests and needs (i.e. delivering programmes that local communities are likely to be interested in and therefore engage with, rather than delivering a programme solely because of the potential benefits associated with it). 

Across these pathways, the role of underserved groups and areas is prominent within the literature and the Theory of Change. While the literature typically identifies outcomes that can apply across all groups of the population, there is some evidence of DCMS sector interventions having an outsized effect on disadvantaged and underserved populations such as children and young people with special educational needs and disabilities, or those from non-white backgrounds. Given that the positive outcomes identified can apply (1) to all children and young people and (2) specifically to the subpopulations of interest, the findings of this review suggest that the focusing on engagement and participation may have greatest impact where focused on underserved groups who are least likely to be capturing these benefits at present - and underserved areas, where differences in the provision of programmes across different regions may create structural barriers to participation.

DCMS sector infrastructure

While facilitating engagement is critical, a healthy supply of culture, sport and other youth infrastructure is a necessary precondition for the target outcomes and impacts. For example, a lack of sports facilities or youth programmes will create structural barriers to participation within a local area which block the outcomes of the Theory of Change. Ensuring this supply of DCMS sector infrastructure, including the existence of a strong civil society, can have feedback loops across the Theory of Change. For instance, funding might be used to develop facilities and spaces, thereby using one input to develop and enhance another input. As such, this indicates the need for collaboration between government, civil society and local stakeholders, leveraging links across DCMS sector infrastructure to provide opportunities for participation, and the importance of investing in the underlying infrastructure that supports DCMS sectors. 

Recommendations for policymaking: engaging with the Theory of Change

The Theory of Change captures the full range of activities across DCMS sectors and the outputs, outcomes and impacts that flow from them. As a result, the Theory can be used as a policymaking tool at both a programme and portfolio level  

Programme development and analysis

• Across DCMS sectors, individual programmes are likely to focus on specific activities and will therefore flow through the Theory of Change differently depending on their area of focus (e.g. programmes to provide facilities in underserved areas will have a different pathway through the Theory compared to communication campaigns to encourage participation). Recognising these differences can support effective programme development by allowing teams to consider the outcomes and impacts they wish to achieve, and trace these back to determine whether this flow logically through the Theory of Change, correcting course if necessary. By linking the target outcomes and impacts to measurable outputs that will support those aims, the Theory of Change also supports monitoring and evaluation. 

Portfolio development and analysis

• Individual programmes are unlikely to fulfil all elements of the Theory of Change. As such, this can also be used as a tool to assess whether, across all programmes in the DCMS portfolio or an individual DCMS sector, the interventions pursued align with the model. Such analysis may, for instance, reveal gaps within the policy response, such that a core enabler of change is missing, or an over-concentration of resource on certain activities to the detriment of others.  

Areas for future research 

While this review has involved a thorough search of existing literature on the links between DCMS sector programmes and interventions and the positive outcomes that support the Opportunity Mission, there are evidence gaps which may merit further and research: 

The nature of sustained participation

• This review’s Theory of Change assumes that if barriers to participation are addressed, individuals will engage in DCMS sector activities, and that this participation will be sustained over time. However, the literature reviewed does not reveal clear lessons as to what constitutes sustained participation and how this might vary across different contexts and programmes. There may therefore be value in further research to understand the minimum ‘dosage’ required to realise the outcomes. 

The drivers of sustained participation

• Noting the importance of sustained participation to the Theory of Change (given outcomes are unlikely to flow from single or limited instances of engagement with DCMS sectors), there is merit in further research into the drivers and barriers to sustained participation, such that the drivers can be reinforced, and barriers can be broken down. While this review has identified barriers to participation, such as in relation to the availability and accessibility of resources, cost of participation, and motivation, exploring the barriers comprehensively was not in scope. 

Value for money

• Notwithstanding the strength of the pathways within the Theory of Change and the positive outcomes identified through the literature review and DCMS sector workshops, the evidence of the value for money of DCMS sector programmes to pursue the specific goals related to the Opportunity Mission is lacking. It is therefore unclear as to the extent to which value for money varies across programmes in different DCMS sectors for the impacts discussed in this report. We consider that further, more specific research into the value for money of DCMS sector initiatives (likely as part of programmes monitoring and evaluation) in the context of the Opportunity Mission and the outcomes considered would therefore be valuable. 

Conducting longitudinal studies or data linking to evaluate the long-term impacts of DCMS activities on the Opportunity Mission outcomes which may only materialise into adulthood.

• To facilitate this, it is recommended that secondary longitudinal data be made available and existing surveys be enhanced to capture the relevant variables consistently across years. This consistency will allow for the creation of longer time series, enabling researchers to examine lifetime impacts and the ‘legacy’ of interventions, i.e., the lasting effects that persist long after the initial exposure to the intervention. By investing in the development and maintenance of such longitudinal datasets, policymakers and researchers can gain valuable insights into the long-term effectiveness of DCMS sector programs in supporting social mobility and other Opportunity Mission objectives, ultimately informing the design and implementation of more impactful policies.

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