Managing trees in the landscape
Learn about the management options for trees and woodland in the landscape, including: felling, shelterwood, overstocking and diversifying tree species.
Increasing the height of coppicing and pollarding
Associated species or groups of species:
Coppicing is a commonly used woodland management method that promotes structural diversity by encouraging the growth of multiple shoots from the base of trees. However, coppiced trees are frequently vulnerable to browsing damage by deer.
An experimental study in Oxfordshire examined the impact of coppicing hazel at different heights on tree survival. The study found:
- 95% of trees died when cut at ground level
- less than 10% died when cut at 0.7 and 0.8 metres
These heights coincide with the approximate browsing height of Reeves’s muntjac and roe deer in the area. This suggests that coppicing at a higher height could significantly improve tree survival by reducing deer browsing damage.
Pollarding is similar to coppicing but carried out at a height above grazing. Evidence shows that cutting a tree’s branches 2-3 metres higher than the ground can mitigate browsing damage from horses and ponies by keeping regrowth out of their reach.
Additional information
Guidance on managing ancient and veteran trees, including advice on how to achieve pollarding correctly from the Ancient Tree Forum.
Felling of ring-barked trees
Associated species or groups of species: Eurasian beaver
Trees that have been ring-barked by Eurasian beavers are likely to die. These trees can be cut down but left in place for at least a month. This allows the beavers to make full use of the felled trees and may reduce the risk of them damaging additional trees.
A single large, felled tree can supply a Eurasian beaver family with enough food for several months.
Shelterwood, group, and single-tree felling
Associated species or groups of species: deer
A systematic literature review on the impact of deer in European forests found that clearcutting regimes are the most vulnerable to browsing, bark stripping and fraying damage.
To mitigate this issue, the study recommends that practitioners adopt alternative approaches, such as:
- shelterwood felling
- group felling
- single-tree felling
Overstocking of trees
Associated species or groups of species: deer
Overstocking of trees is a silvicultural method designed to reduce browsing damage without relying on additional tree protection options. By planting trees at higher densities and/or allowing natural regeneration, browsing pressure is spread across a larger number of individual trees, reducing the risk of significant damage to any single tree.
This method can be particularly effective in areas with high mammal populations, where overbrowsing poses a challenge to target stocking densities.
However, overstocking can lead to increased competition among trees for resources such as light, water and nutrients, potentially slowing their growth rates. While overstocking can be an effective strategy for reducing browsing damage, it should be implemented with careful consideration of the potential trade-offs.
Riparian buffer zones
Associated species or groups of species: Eurasian beaver
Riparian buffer zones are areas of vegetation that are planted along streams, rivers and wetlands to protect water quality and reduce flooding.
In the context of woodland creation and restoration, the Scottish Government suggests that establishing riparian buffer zones between 20 and 50 meters in width, where feasible. This can effectively mitigate flood risk and minimise damage to trees caused by Eurasian beavers.
Monitoring during the Scottish Beaver Trial over a 4-year period found that the majority of Eurasian beaver foraging activity occurred within 10 metres of the water’s edge.
Depth of hand sowing
Associated species or groups of species: small rodents
Direct seeding is recommended as an effective method for establishing new native broadleaved woodlands on high-quality lowland sites, such as former agricultural land. However, seed predation by small rodents, particularly wood mice, can limit its success.
Large-seeded species such as oak, hazel and beech are the most vulnerable tree species to small rodent predation, particularly when the seeds are left uncovered.
Seed burial can significantly reduce predation risk, by making seeds harder to detect and increasing the time required for predators to find them. The effectiveness depends on factors such as:
- burial depth
- soil porosity
- seed palatability
Planting diverse tree species
Associated species or groups of species:
Planting more diverse tree stands may reduce browsing by voles and hares compared to monocultures. The effectiveness of this approach is likely dependent on the selected tree species and their relative palatability.
The use less palatable species has also been explored as a method to mitigate browsing by deer, with Italian alder and hybrid poplar thought to be less attractive to some deer species. However, empirical evidence supporting this remains limited.
Timing of planting
Associated species or groups of species: small rodents
Field vole damage is most severe in regions with highly cyclical populations, with damage occurring at higher rates during population peaks. This increased damage is likely due to a reduction in the quantity or quality of food sources.
Some evidence suggests that certain tree varieties are resistant to vole browsing, including:
- Norway spruce
- birch
- lodgepole pine
- Scots pine
The frequency and intensity of field vole population cycles increases with latitude. In northern Scandinavia, for example, the population cycles are distinct enough to predict when peak field vole damage is most likely to occur. As a result, planting regimes can be modified to take place after the population peak.
In the UK, field vole populations are cyclic only in upland areas. However, predictive modelling of field vole abundance in these regions could help inform planting regimes and reduce the amount of damage caused by field voles.
Additional information, consider the following resources:
A review of damage by small mammals in north temperate forests.
Willow pegs (or forks)
Associated species or groups of species:
The planting of willow pegs – pushed entirely below ground level – or 3-metre willow forks – buried deep enough to prevent uprooting – have been suggested as no-fence approaches to encourage willow regeneration in the presence of grazing and browsing pressure.
The buried pegs allow roots to establish before vulnerable shoots emerge, while the taller forks keep new growth out of reach.
Additional information
Woodland creation guide by the Woodland Trust.
Information on no-fence tree planting methods by Cambrian Wildwood.
Sabre planting
Associated species or groups of species
Sabre planting is an innovative no-fence planting method developed by Steve Watson to protect planted saplings primarily from browsing by sheep, but also by goats, cattle and roe deer.
The method involves planting saplings a minimum 1.2 metres high on to steep slopes with an incline of 30-40° or more. The saplings are planted perpendicular to the slope, which initially causes the lead shoot to grow outward from the incline and away from browsing animals. Over time, the buds and shoots grow completely out of reach. At this stage, the tree begins to grow vertically, producing a mature tree with a trunk that curves like a sabre.
This distinctive curve is what gives the method its name. In larger tree species, the sabre shape may eventually disappear as the tree continues to develop.
The presence of gorse, bracken or blackthorn can provide further protection for the saplings and improve their survival rates, provided these plants are not so dense or tall that they overshadow the saplings. However, in areas where most browsing occurs in winter, bracken, which is a deciduous species, will be ineffective.
Additional information
Sabre planting with the tree shepherd, Steve Watson by Cambrian Wildwood.
Report reviewing a range of no-fence tree protection methods, including sabre planting, for use in Scotland by NatureScot.
Clump (or sacrificial) planting
Associated species or groups of species
Clump (or sacrificial) planting is a method designed primarily to protect desirable trees from deer browsing by surrounding them with dense ‘clumps’ of sacrificial trees. For example, fast-growing, relatively browse-resilient species, such as willow, alder or birch might be planted around the perimeter of the clump to protect more palatable, less resilient or hard-to-establish species like oak.
It is recommended to plant up to 40 sacrificial trees, spaced 20cm apart, for each protected tree. The success of this relies on deer being either unable or unwilling to reach the desired trees. To effectively protect against red deer, sika deer and fallow deer, larger and denser clumps may be necessary.
A similar approach has been proposed to improve Eurasian beaver habitats in riparian woodlands, with the aim of reducing the need for Eurasian beavers to forage away from the watercourse.
Clump (or sacrificial) planting has not yet been extensively trialled in the UK and has the obvious disadvantage of being relatively expensive and having a high level of tree wastage.
Landscape placement of new woods
Associated species or groups of species: grey squirrel
The strategic placement of new woodlands and careful selection of tree species may help reduce grey squirrel colonisation and damage.
Research from East Anglia suggests that smaller (under 5 ha), isolated woodlands are less likely to be occupied by grey squirrels, especially those:
- at least 0.5 to 1 km from large woodlands (5 ha or more)
- with fewer hedgerows
- limited oak, beech and hazel
A beech woodland in the Chilterns, planted following these criteria, showed no signs of grey squirrel presence or damage.