Policy paper

State of the nation 2021: Social mobility and the pandemic - technical annex

Updated 21 July 2021

Annex A – Glossary

Absolute poverty

This is one measure of poverty (see also Relative poverty ). A household is in absolute poverty if its income is below 60% of the average (median) net household income as it was in 2010 to 2011. This threshold stays the same over time – it does not adjust for changes in average income. Many experts, including us, prefer the relative poverty measure, because it shows the number of households significantly below today’s normal living standards. In contrast, the UK’s absolute poverty measure becomes increasingly out of date over time.

Absolute social mobility

This is the idea that you have a good chance to do better than your parents, especially in terms of occupation and income.

Absolute mobility rates look at the proportion of the population who are in different positions (occupational class or income) from their parents, and are usually given as a simple percentage.

For example, a person experiences upward absolute income mobility if their income is greater than their parents’ income.

They experience upward absolute occupational mobility if their occupation class is higher than their parents’. Absolute social mobility increases if more and more people do better than their parents.

Advanced Higher exams

Exams taken by students around 16 to18 years of age after the completion of their main university entrance qualification in Scotland.

Apprenticeships

A work-based training system, where apprentices earn a qualification after completing a blended mix of study and work.

Apprentices must complete 20% of their training off the job, be paid the apprenticeship minimum wage (£3.70/hr for those aged 19 and over) and pass an end point assessment.

Attainment Scotland Fund

A targeted initiative focused on closing the attainment gap between the most and least advantaged children in Scotland.

Attainment 8

Attainment 8, a measure used in England, gives a student’s average grade at Key Stage 4 (when pupils are generally aged 16) across eight subjects. The same subjects count towards Progress 8. The eight subjects fit into three groups: English and maths. These are double-weighted, which means they count twice.

Three further qualifications which count for the English Baccalaureate (EBacc).

Three further qualifications from the ‘open group’ which is any remaining GCSEs and other approved academic, arts or vocational qualifications. It can include qualifications which count for the EBacc.

A student’s Attainment 8 score is calculated by adding up their points for their eight subjects and dividing by 10. Students score zero for any unfilled slots.

Children and Young People (Scotland) Act 2014

This Act was passed by the Scottish Parliament on 19 February 2014 and received Royal Assent on 27 March 2014. The legislation is a key part of the Scottish Government’s strategy for making Scotland the best place in the world for children to grow up and establishes a new legal framework within which services are to work together in support of children, young people and families.

Class pay gap

The difference in average pay between people from different class backgrounds.

Convention of Scottish Local Authorities (COSLA)

COSLA is a councillor-led cross-party organisation which was established in 1975 to champion councils’ vital work to secure the resources and powers they need, focus on the challenges and opportunities they face, engage positively with governments and others on policy, funding and legislation.

Coronavirus Job Retention Scheme (CJRS)

A scheme offered by the UK Government to provide grants to employers to ensure that they can retain and continue to pay staff, despite the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.

COVID-19 FE/HE Student Hardship Taskforce

The Scottish Government established this to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on student hardship and to determine if the mechanisms and measures currently in place are enough to mitigate against student hardship in further (FE) and higher education (HE).

Developing the Young Workforce (DYW)

The Scottish Government’s Youth Employment strategy to better prepare young people for the world of work.

Digital exclusion

Digital exclusion refers to the lack of internet access, digital devices or skills that prevents people from effectively engaging with digital services and environments.

Early years

The period in a child’s life between birth and five years of age.

Early years foundation stage

The early years foundation stage (EYFS) sets standards in England for the learning, development and care of a child from birth to 5 years old. All schools and Ofsted-registered early years providers must follow the EYFS, including childminders, preschools, nurseries and school reception classes. There are different early years standards in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

Economically inactive

Individuals that are out of work and not looking for a job. Reasons for this include: sickness, looking after family, and being a student, amongst other reasons.

English Baccalaureate (EBacc)

The English Baccalaureate (EBacc) is a school performance measure in England, derived from GCSE results. It uses the average score from GCSE grades in specified subjects:

  • English language and English literature
  • Mathematics
  • either combined science or three of biology, chemistry, computer science, and physics
  • either a modern or an ancient foreign language
  • Geography or history

Fairer Scotland Action Plan

Came out of the Fairer Scotland conversations in 2015 and consists of 50 actions to help tackle poverty, reduce inequality and build a fairer and more inclusive Scotland.

Fair Start Scotland

A flexible employment support service in Scotland that helps to find the right jobs. It is a voluntary programme delivered in Glasgow and the Highlands and Islands which offers tailored support for up to 12 months.

Fair Work: action plan

A document which sets out the strategic approach the Scottish Government is taking to help achieve the 2025 vision for Fair Work.

Foundation phase

The statutory curriculum for all 3- to 7-year-olds in Wales.

Furlough

The word ‘furlough’ generally means temporary leave of absence from work. This can be due to economic conditions affecting one company, or matters affecting the whole country.

Furlough leave in 2020 temporarily provided employers who were severely affected by coronavirus with an option to keep employees on the payroll without them working at all. Under the flexible extensions to the furlough scheme (from July 2020 onwards) employees could either cease working completely or work reduced hours. As the staff on furlough are kept on the payroll, this is different to being laid off without pay, being made redundant or becoming unemployed.

Further education

Typically refers to classroom-based learning at Further Education (FE) colleges or providers. Students can start at age 14 or 16, depending on the college.

GCSE, General Certificate of Secondary Education

The GCSE is an academic qualification taken in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, normally at the age of 16. State schools in Scotland use the Scottish Qualifications Certificate instead.

Higher Exams

One of the national school-leaving certificate exams in the Scottish secondary education system and can be referred to as ‘Highers’.

Students can normally study four or five Highers, the Scottish curriculum allows for this to be sat over one to two years which can lead to university, further study, training or work.

Income mobility

See Social mobility , Absolute social mobility and Relative social mobility.

Intermediate (occupations)

See NS-SEC

Key Stage 1

The two years of schooling in England and Wales described as Year 1 and 2, when pupils are aged between 5 and 8.

Key Stage 2

The four years of schooling in England and Wales described as Year 3, Year 4, Year 5 and Year 6, when pupils are aged between 7 and 11. Key Stage 2 SATs (standard admissions tests) are taken by pupils aged 11 at the end of Year 6, which is, usually, the final year in primary school.

Key Stage 3

The three years of schooling in England and Wales known as Year 7, Year 8 and Year 9, when pupils are aged between 11 and 14.

Key Stage 4

The two years of schooling in England known as Year 10 and Year 11, when pupils are aged between 14 and 16. Most pupils take their final general certificate of secondary education (GCSE) exams at the end of Year 11.

Key Stage 5

The two years of schooling in England and Wales known as Year 12 and Year 13, when pupils are aged between 16 and 18. Typical qualifications studied for during this time are A-levels and BTEC Level 3 courses. T Levels are expected to be the gold standard of new vocational courses offered at Key Stage 5 from 2020.

Lad o’pairts

A Scottish term for a youth, particularly one from a humble background, who is considered talented or promising.

National minimum wage

The minimum wage that an employer must pay its workforce. For those aged over 25, it is currently set at £8.91, an amount known as the “National Living Wage”. There are lower National Minimum Wages amounts for younger people. In this report, this is referred to as the minimum wage.

National Transition Training Fund

The £25 million fund aims to tackle the rise in employment caused by COVID-19 by helping people to identify relevant employment and training opportunities in Scotland.

Nine Challenge Authorities

The Scottish Government Attainment challenge focuses on these nine authorities: North Ayrshire, Dundee, Inverclyde, West Dunbartonshire, Clackmannanshire, North Lanarkshire, East Ayrshire and Renfrewshire. These are the nine local councils with the highest concentrations of deprivation in Scotland.

No detriment policy

‘No detriment’ is the principle that when there is significant and unavoidable disruption to studies, students are not disadvantaged by receiving grades that are lower than might otherwise be expected. The approach to applying ‘no detriment’ varies across institutions.

NS-SEC, the National Statistics Socio-economic Classification

This is the best national measure to monitor occupational social mobility. We define an individual’s socio-economic background according to the occupation of their higher earning parent:

  • professional/managerial: NS-SEC 1 and 2 – managerial and professional. Examples include CEOs, senior police officers, doctors, journalists, barristers, solicitors, teachers and nurses
  • intermediate: NS-SEC 3 and 4. Examples include: shopkeepers, paramedics, and police officers
  • working class: NS-SEC 5, 6, and 7 – routine and manual. Examples include receptionists, electricians, plumbers, butchers and van drivers

Occupational mobility

See Social mobility , Absolute social mobility and Relative social mobility.

Ofsted (The Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills)

The education and skills inspectorate, and both regulator and inspectorate of services which provide care for children and young people.

Poverty and Inequality Commission

An advisory non-departmental public body established from 1 July 2019, which provides independent advice and scrutiny to Scottish ministers on poverty and inequality.

Professional, professional/ managerial (occupations)

See NS-SEC

Pupil Premium

A sum of money given by the UK government to schools in England to improve the attainment of disadvantaged children.

Pupil Equity Funding

Funds to help Scottish schools support children who experience barriers to learning and might not be getting the same chances in their education because their family is experiencing poverty and other financial difficulties.

Relative poverty

This is one measure of poverty (also see Absolute poverty ). A household is in relative poverty if its income is below 60% of the average (median) net household income in the same year. In other words, the pound amount of the poverty line changes each year based on current average income in the country.

Many experts, including us, prefer the relative poverty measure, because it shows the number of households significantly below today’s normal living standards. In contrast, the UK’s absolute poverty measure becomes increasingly out of date over time.

We can look at relative poverty in two ways: before and after housing costs. We look at poverty after housing costs to see how much households have in disposable income. Ignoring the cost of housing means you only have half of the picture of financial pressures on struggling households. Since housing costs have spiralled over the past 25 years (increasing by almost half in real terms for private tenants), and because housing costs differ dramatically across the country, it makes a real difference to families’ disposable income.

Relative social mobility

This is the idea that your parents’ position in society doesn’t determine your position in society, especially in terms of occupational class and income.

Relative mobility rates compare the chances that people from different backgrounds have of ending up with a particular occupational class or income. They are usually given as a ratio or a similar statistic (such as a slope in a regression model). For example, we note in this report that people from a professional background are 60% more likely to be in a professional job.

Relative occupational mobility is low if almost everyone ends up in the same occupational class as their parents. Relative income mobility is low if almost everyone ends up in a similar place in the income distribution as their parents – for example, if parents in the bottom decile of earnings have children that mostly end up in the bottom decile of earnings.

While absolute and relative social mobility often go together, they are not the same concept. For example, if a society creates more professional jobs, absolute occupational mobility should improve. But if most of these professional jobs go to people from professional backgrounds, relative social mobility may remain static.

SATs

A common term for tests taken at the end of Key Stage 1 and the end of Key Stage 2 in England.

Secondary 3

Also known as S3, it is the third year of schooling in Scottish secondary schools and is roughly equivalent to Year 10 in England and Wales and Year 11 in Northern Ireland. Most pupils are 14 or 15 years old at the end of S3.

Scottish Framework for Fair Access

This framework was designed to produce a step change in knowledge about which interventions designed to promote fairer access to higher education work best. This framework has two pillars. Firstly, a toolkit to assess the effectiveness of existing interventions to promote fair access and secondly, the establishment of Scotland’s Community of Access and Participation Practitioners (SCAPP).

Scotland’s National Performance Framework (NPF)

This framework which pertains to Scotland provides a vision for national wellbeing across a range of economic, social and environmental factors. It aims to:

  • create a more successful country
  • give opportunities to all people living in Scotland
  • increase the wellbeing of people living in Scotland
  • create sustainable and inclusive growth
  • reduce inequalities and give equal importance to economic, environmental and social progress

Social mobility

This is the idea that where you start in life shouldn’t determine your future, and that you have a good chance to do better than your parents. To measure it, we look at what occupation or income your parents had and what occupation or income you end up with. See Relative social mobility and Absolute social mobility.

Socio-economic classification, background

See NS-SEC

Tackling Child Poverty Delivery Plan

The plan is focused on reaffirming rights and entitlements and reflects the Scottish Government’s commitment to ‘inclusive growth’, aiming to provide a foundation of entitlements that tackles poverty and leaves no one behind.

Technical education

The academic and vocational education of students for jobs that usually include an applied element.

The Fairer Scotland Duty

This is an interim guidance for public bodies which came into force from April 2018. It places a legal responsibility on specific public bodies in Scotland to actively consider how they can reduce inequalities of outcome caused by socio- economic disadvantage when making strategic decisions.

The Fair Work Convention (April 2015)

This convention which acts as an independent advisory body to Scottish ministers, came into force in April 2015.

The convention’s vision is that, by 2015, people in Scotland will have a world-leading working life where fair work drives success, wellbeing and prosperity for individuals, businesses, organisation and society.

The Scotland Act 1998

An Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which legislated for the establishment of a devolved Scottish Parliament with tax varying powers and made provision for a Scottish Government of ministers.

The Scotland Act 2016

This is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which sets out amendments to the Scotland Act 1998 and devolves further powers to Scotland.

The Scottish Attainment Challenge

The First Minister of Scotland launched the Scottish Attainment Challenge in February 2015 to bring a greater sense of urgency to tackling inequity, which is at the heart of the Scottish Government’s agenda. It aims to raise the attainment of children and young people in deprived areas, to close the equity gap, foster improvements in educational outcomes and ensure that everyone is encouraged to be the best they can be.

The Scottish Government’s devolved employment support service

Provides intensive and individualised employability support to people facing challenges in accessing work across Scotland.

The Young Person’s Guarantee

Offers young people in Scotland a connection to the following opportunities:

  • an apprenticeship
  • fair employment including work experience
  • participating in a formal volunteering programme
  • training
  • going to university or college

UCAS

The Universities and Colleges Admissions Service – a non- profit organisation which conducts the application process for UK universities.

(UKSPF) UK Shared Prosperity Fund

A new fund to replace the structural funding which the UK received as a member of the European Union. The UK government has stated that the purpose of the fund is to tackle inequalities between communities.

Working class occupations

See NS-SEC.

Annex B – Methodology

This report uses socio-economic background questions within the UK Labour Force Survey (LFS) to provide comprehensive analysis of social mobility from 2014 to 2020. The LFS represents the largest survey of employment in the United Kingdom, with a sample of around 70,000 to 90,000 each quarter.

The survey has a rolling panel design over five waves, with one fifth entering the survey and one fifth leaving at each wave. The July to September wave has been used in each year for this analysis, as this has questions on socio-economic background, asking about the survey respondents’ parents in childhood. It asks about the household composition, the main wage earner (including if no parent was earning) and the occupation of the main wage earner when the respondent was 14. This has been included in each July-September wave since 2014, meaning that there is now seven years’ worth of data. However, where we’ve marked it in the report, we have had to pool data across multiple years to achieve sufficient sample sizes.

A quarterly main LFS dataset typically contains around 75,000 individuals. However, during the COVID-19 pandemic, from July to December 2020, the wave 1 LFS sample size was doubled in order to improve achieved sample sizes while response rates were impacted by the pause in face-to-face data collection. The change in the mode of collection also impacted on the weighting used in the survey and full details can be found in the ONS methodology. Unweighted sample sizes for each of the charts included in the report are in the tables below.

The analysis of this report replicates and updates the analysis from our 2018 Statutory report for the UK and its constituent countries and therefore the main sample for this report is those aged 25 to 60 (175,387 respondents). The sample is expanded to cover 16 to 64 year olds when looking at measures of economic activity (as this does not require a measure of own occupation). This increases the sample size to 229,810.

Sampling weights are used throughout the analysis. Income-related analysis in the report has been drawn from smaller samples, due to income not being captured in all waves of the survey. Income analysis also does not include individuals that are self-employed, as the LFS does not include earnings data for these individuals. Any figures that are shown on an annualised basis have been calculated by multiplying gross weekly earnings by the relevant multiplier. Earnings are only included for those classified as working full-time and where hourly wages are greater than zero, but less than £100 per hour. Income-related analysis makes use of the relevant income-related sampling weights, which differ from the standard weights.

Socio-economic background has largely been derived using occupational class in this report, the measure that sociologists traditionally favour. This is based on an individual’s National Statistic Socio-Economic Classification (NS-SEC), a measure which combines occupation with the degree of autonomy of the role and size of the employer. Mobility is calculated by looking at how a person’s NS-SEC compared to that of their main income- earning parent.

The seven groups of NS-SEC have been simplified into three distinct groups:

Class title: Professional and managerial occupations.

We call people whose parents were in this category ‘advantaged’, ‘privileged’, ‘professional’ or ‘high socio-economic background’

NS-SEC code: NS-SEC 1, NS-SEC 2

Examples include CEOs, senior police officers, doctors, journalists, barristers, solicitors, teachers and nurses

Class title: Intermediate occupations

NS-SEC code: NS-SEC 3, NS-SEC 4

Examples include shopkeepers, paramedics, small business owners and police officers

Class title: Routine and manual occupations.

We call people whose parents were in this category ‘working class’ or ‘low socio-economic background’

NS-SEC code: NS-SEC 5, NS-SEC 6, NS-SEC 7

Examples include receptionists, electricians, plumbers, butchers and van drivers

This matches the classification system proposed by ONS and used in the 2018 to 2019 State of the Nation report. However, it differs slightly from the approach used in the academic literature, which treats NS-SEC 5 as part of the ‘Intermediate’ group. This accounts for about 6% to 7% of individuals each year.

The Labour Force Survey already includes the NS-SEC classification for individuals’ own occupation. This report focuses on the occupation recorded at the same time as parental backgrounds (the July-September wave). Individuals who are studying full-time according to the NS-SEC classification or have a missing classification and are permanently retired are excluded from the analysis. Individuals who are not working for other reasons are included and treated as ‘Not working’.

To measure intergenerational occupational mobility, origin class has been created using information on the respondent’s main earning parent’s occupation when the respondent was 14. In particular, this report uses a simplified-method to compute NS-SEC based on the three-digit Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) code (SMSOC103), which is the most detailed variable included in the End User Licence version of the data.

Individuals are excluded from the analysis where parental occupation is missing, uncertain or where parent(s) were not working. This applies to about 5% of cases. This matches the approach in the 2018 to 2019 State of the Nation Report. This group is also often excluded or treated entirely separately in the academic literature given uncertainty about where they should be included in any occupational hierarchy.

Figure B1 below shows the share of individuals where parental background is missing or workless in different jobs. As can be seen, a relatively high share are in working class jobs (34% in 2020) which is slightly above the share of those from working class backgrounds in working class jobs (31% in 2020). A relatively low share are in professional jobs (about 30%), a lower share than from all other backgrounds. Around 15 to 20% of this group have a missing occupation or are out of work themselves over time.

Figure B1: Proportion of people in the UK aged 25 to 60 with missing, unknown or workless backgrounds in different occupations.

Year Professional jobs Intermediate jobs Working class jobs Missing or not working
2014 23% 20% 36% 21%
2015 24% 19% 37% 20%
2016 25% 20% 36% 20%
2017 24% 19% 37% 20%
2018 27% 18% 39% 16%
2019 25% 19% 37% 19%
2020 30% 20% 34% 17%

Source: SMC Analysis of Labour Force Survey (ONS)

This work contains statistical data from ONS which is Crown Copyright. The use of the ONS statistical data in this work does not imply the endorsement of the ONS in relation to the interpretation or analysis of the statistical data. This work uses research datasets which may not exactly reproduce National Statistics aggregates.

Unweighted sample sizes for each of the charts included in the report are in the Tables below.

Appendix Table B1: Proportion of people aged 25 to 60 from different socio-economic backgrounds in working class occupations, unweighted sample sizes and 95% confidence intervals.

Professional Background Professional Background N Intermediate Background Background N Working Class Background N
UK            
2014 16.5% (15.8%, 17.2%) 11,609 26.8% (25.8%, 27.8%) 7,673 35.6% (34.8%, 36.4%) 13,446
2015 17.1% (16.3%, 17.8%) 9,587 27.7% (26.6%, 28.8%) 6,179 34.9% (34.0%, 35.8%) 10,771
2016 16.5% (15.7%, 17.3%) 9,163 28.6% (27.4%, 29.8%) 5,555 34.6% (33.7%, 35.5%) 9,692
2017 16.3% (15.6%, 17.0%) 9,644 26.9% (25.7%, 28.0%) 5,721 35.1% (34.1%, 36.0%) 9,980
2018 15.6% (14.9%, 16.4%) 8,837 27.0% (25.8%, 28.2%) 5,119 34.4% (33.4%, 35.4%) 9,038
2019 15.7% (15.0%, 16.5%) 9,451 26.1% (24.9%, 27.3%) 5,492 32.3% (31.3%, 33.3%) 9,002
2020 14.3% (13.5%, 15.1%) 8,106 23.3% (22.0%, 24.5%) 4,293 31.0% (29.9%, 32.1%) 7,027
England            
2014 16.4% (15.7%, 17.2%) 10,003 26.1% (25.0%, 27.2%) 6,277 34.9% (34.0%, 35.8%) 11,084
2015 16.9% (16.1%, 17.7%) 8,271 27.0% (25.8%, 28.2%) 5,082 34.5% (33.6%, 35.5%) 8,762
2016 16.0% (15.2%, 16.8%) 7,870 28.4% (27.0%, 29.7%) 4,473 33.7% (32.7%, 34.8%) 7,761
2017 15.5% (14.7%, 16.3%) 8,289 27.0% (25.8%, 28.3%) 4,629 34.4% (33.3%, 35.4%) 8,094
2018 14.8% (14.0%, 15.6%) 7,467 26.3% (24.9%, 27.6%) 4,113 33.7% (32.6%, 34.8%) 7,208
2019 15.4% (14.6%, 16.3%) 7,730 25.8% (24.5%, 27.1%) 4,168 31.4% (30.3%, 32.5%) 6,773
2020 13.8% (13.0%, 14.6%) 6,804 23.6% (22.1%, 25.0%) 3,367 30.1% (28.9%, 31.3%) 5,583
Wales            
2014 15.0% (11.9%, 18.2%) 488 25.2% (20.8%, 29.6%) 373 39.8% (36.0%, 43.5%) 649
2015 18.3% (12.9%, 23.8%) 377 33.6% (28.1%, 39.0%) 291 39.2% (35.2%, 43.2%) 573
2016 22.2% (16.4%, 28.1%) 319 33.6% (27.8%, 39.5%) 242 37.6% (33.4%, 41.8%) 513
2017 20.6% (15.3%, 25.9%) 342 34.2% (28.9%, 39.5%) 268 33.5% (29.3%, 37.8%) 482
2018 21.1% (15.4%, 26.8%) 399 37.5% (31.7%, 43.2%) 243 36.9% (32.7%, 41.0%) 521
2019 14.9% (8.9%, 20.8%) 368 39.5% (33.6%, 45.4%) 215 36.8% (32.5%, 41.1%) 478
2020 19.7% (14.4%, 25.0%) 326 45.8% (40.5%, 51.1%) 197 36.7% (31.7%, 41.7%) 362
Scotland            
2014 17.4% (15.0%, 19.8%) 924 32.3% (28.8%, 35.8%) 685 39.2% (36.5%, 41.8%) 1,306
2015 17.8% (15.1%, 20.6%) 747 29.3% (25.3%, 33.3%) 493 35.5% (32.5%, 38.5%) 1,004
2016 18.1% (15.2%, 21.0%) 693 29.5% (25.2%, 33.8%) 441 39.5% (36.3%, 42.7%) 892
2017 22.8% (19.8%, 25.8%) 733 28.5% (24.3%, 32.7%) 452 40.0% (36.8%, 43.2%) 900
2018 21.1% (18.1%, 24.2%) 672 30.9% (26.3%, 35.5%) 391 37.7% (34.4%, 41.1%) 806
2019 19.7% (16.8%, 22.5%) 728 29.3% (24.9%, 33.8%) 400 37.3% (33.9%, 40.6%) 810
2020 17.0% (13.9%, 20.0%) 587 23.2% (18.7%, 27.8%) 332 35.0% (31.1%, 38.9%) 566
Northern Ireland            
2014 22.3% (16.4%, 28.2%) 194 30.7% (25.8%, 35.7%) 338 37.1% (32.4%, 41.8%) 407
2015 19.7% (14.0%, 25.3%) 192 31.7% (26.6%, 36.9%) 313 35.3% (30.8%, 39.8%) 432
2016 23.9% (18.9%, 28.9%) 281 29.2% (24.8%, 33.7%) 399 36.7% (32.5%, 40.8%) 526
2017 18.8% (14.2%, 23.4%) 280 21.1% (16.9%, 25.2%) 372 40.6% (36.3%, 44.9%) 504
2018 17.3% (13.0%, 21.6%) 299 32.0% (27.2%, 36.7%) 372 38.9% (34.7%, 43.2%) 503
2019 15.5% (12.6%, 18.3%) 625 25.8% (22.6%, 29.0%) 709 33.5% (30.5%, 36.5%) 941
2020 16.0% (12.3%, 19.6%) 389 23.5% (19.3%, 27.6%) 397 32.7% (28.6%, 36.7%) 516

Note: 95% confidence intervals are shown in parentheses and sample sizes are unweighted.

Appendix Table B2: Proportion of people aged 25 to 60 from different socio-economic backgrounds in professional occupations, unweighted sample sizes and 95% confidence intervals.

Professional Background Professional Background N Intermediate Background N Working Class Background N
UK            
2014 57.9% (57.0%, 58.8%) 11,609 40.4% (39.3%, 41.5%) 7,673 32.0% (31.2%, 32.8%) 13,446
2015 56.0% (55.0%, 57.0%) 9,587 39.4% (38.2%, 40.6%) 6,179 32.2% (31.3%, 33.1%) 10,771
2016 58.2% (57.2%, 59.2%) 9,163 39.2% (38.0%, 40.5%) 5,555 33.4% (32.4%, 34.3%) 9,692
2017 57.6% (56.6%, 58.6%) 9,644 39.7% (38.5%, 41.0%) 5,721 33.4% (32.5%, 34.4%) 9,980
2018 58.2% (57.2%, 59.3%) 8,837 41.2% (39.9%, 42.6%) 5,119 34.7% (33.8%, 35.7%) 9,038
2019 59.7% (58.8%, 60.7%) 9,451 41.6% (40.3%, 42.9%) 5,492 35.9% (34.9%, 36.9%) 9,002
2020 61.6% (60.5%, 62.6%) 8,106 46.8% (45.3%, 48.3%) 4,293 38.0% (36.9%, 39.2%) 7,027
England            
2014 58.0% (57.0%, 59.0%) 10,003 41.3% (40.1%, 42.5%) 6,277 32.9% (32.0%, 33.8%) 11,084
2015 56.2% (55.1%, 57.3%) 8,271 40.2% (38.8%, 41.5%) 5,082 32.7% (31.7%, 33.7%) 8,762
2016 58.8% (57.7%, 59.8%) 7,870 39.5% (38.0%, 40.9%) 4,473 34.2% (33.1%, 35.2%) 7,761
2017 58.5% (57.4%, 59.6%) 8,289 40.4% (39.0%, 41.9%) 4,629 34.0% (33.0%, 35.1%) 8,094
2018 58.9% (57.8%, 60.0%) 7,467 42.0% (40.5%, 43.5%) 4,113 35.2% (34.1%, 36.3%) 7,208
2019 60.3% (59.2%, 61.3%) 7,730 42.3% (40.8%, 43.8%) 4,168 36.8% (35.7%, 38.0%) 6,773
2020 62.3% (61.1%, 63.4%) 6,804 47.0% (45.4%, 48.7%) 3,367 38.6% (37.3%, 39.8%) 5,583
Wales            
2014 57.3% (53.0%, 61.7%) 488 35.5% (30.6%, 40.4%) 373 26.2% (22.8%, 29.5%) 649
2015 53.6% (48.5%, 58.6%) 377 33.6% (28.1%, 39.0%) 291 28.4% (24.7%, 32.1%) 573
2016 51.5% (46.0%, 57.0%) 319 33.6% (27.7%, 39.6%) 242 29.8% (25.8%, 33.7%) 513
2017 51.7% (46.4%, 57.0%) 342 34.2% (28.5%, 39.9%) 268 34.3% (30.0%, 38.5%) 482
2018 52.5% (47.6%, 57.4%) 399 37.5% (31.4%, 43.6%) 243 34.7% (30.6%, 38.8%) 521
2019 58.7% (53.6%, 63.7%) 368 39.5% (33.0%, 46.1%) 215 33.8% (29.6%, 38.1%) 478
2020 53.7% (48.3%, 59.1%) 326 45.8% (38.8%, 52.8%) 197 35.7% (30.8%, 40.7%) 362
Scotland            
2014 58.0% (54.8%, 61.2%) 924 37.7% (34.1%, 41.3%) 685 29.2% (26.7%, 31.6%) 1,306
2015 56.2% (52.6%, 59.8%) 747 36.9% (32.6%, 41.1%) 493 31.8% (28.9%, 34.7%) 1,004
2016 57.1% (53.4%, 60.7%) 693 43.1% (38.4%, 47.7%) 441 32.0% (28.9%, 35.0%) 892
2017 52.4% (48.7%, 56.0%) 733 38.8% (34.3%, 43.3%) 452 31.2% (28.2%, 34.2%) 900
2018 55.4% (51.6%, 59.1%) 672 39.6% (34.8%, 44.5%) 391 33.7% (30.4%, 37.0%) 806
2019 55.5% (51.9%, 59.1%) 728 39.0% (34.2%, 43.7%) 400 32.8% (29.5%, 36.0%) 810
2020 58.2% (54.2%, 62.2%) 587 48.2% (42.8%, 53.6%) 332 35.8% (31.9%, 39.8%) 56
Northern Ireland            
2014 48.4% (41.4%, 55.5%) 194 31.1% (26.2%, 36.1%) 338 23.9% (19.8%, 28.1%) 407
2015 51.8% (44.7%, 58.9%) 192 35.4% (30.1%, 40.7%) 313 27.5% (23.3%, 31.7%) 432
2016 51.3% (45.5%, 57.2%) 281 33.4% (28.8%, 38.0%) 399 24.0% (20.3%, 27.6%) 526
2017 50.2% (44.3%, 56.0%) 280 33.8% (28.9%, 38.6%) 372 23.9% (20.2%, 27.7%) 504
2018 52.9% (47.2%, 58.6%) 299 31.5% (26.8%, 36.3%) 372 25.6% (21.8%, 29.4%) 503
2019 56.3% (52.4%, 60.2%) 625 35.4% (31.9%, 39.0%) 709 26.0% (23.2%, 28.8%) 941
2020 60.4% (55.5%, 65.2%) 389 40.3% (35.4%, 45.1%) 397 34.2% (30.1%, 38.3%) 51

Note: 95% confidence intervals are shown in parentheses and sample sizes are unweighted.

Appendix Table B3: Unemployment rate for 16 to 64 year olds by socio-economic background, unweighted sample sizes and 95% confidence intervals.

Professional Background N Intermediate Background N Working Class Background N
UK            
2014 4.8% (4.5%, 5.1%) 15,524 5.7% (-0.4%, 6.1%) 10,002 6.6% (6.3%, 6.9%) 17,608
2015 4.5% (4.2%, 4.8%) 12,679 5.1% (-0.4%, 5.5%) 8,035 5.9% (5.5%, 6.2%) 14,110
2016 4.2% (3.9%, 4.6%) 12,112 4.3% (4.6%, 4.7%) 7,240 5.5% (5.2%, 5.9%) 12,520
2017 3.9% (3.5%, 4.2%) 12,727 4.0% (4.0%, 4.4%) 7,371 4.8% (4.5%, 5.2%) 12,928
2018 3.9% (3.6%, 4.3%) 11,684 3.7% (3.6%, 4.1%) 6,652 4.8% (4.4%, 5.1%) 11,898
2019 3.8% (3.4%, 4.1%) 12,350 4.0% (3.5%, 4.4%) 7,013 4.2% (3.9%, 4.5%) 11,617
2020 5.7% (5.3%, 6.1%) 10,966 4.6% (3.6%, 5.0%) 5,614 4.9% (4.5%, 5.3%) 9,160
England (3yr moving average)            
2014 n/a 13,306 n/a 8,192 n/a 14,535
2015 n/a 24,167 n/a 14,776 n/a 26,022
2016 3.6% (3.3%, 3.9%) 34,550 3.9% (3.4%, 4.4%) 20,593 4.6% (4.2%, 5.0%) 36,035
2017 3.3% (3.1%, 3.5%) 32,132 3.5% (3.2%, 3.8%) 18,359 4.1% (3.8%, 4.4%) 31,940
2018 3.3% (3.1%, 3.5%) 31,108 3.3% (3.0%, 3.6%) 17,112 4.0% (3.8%, 4.2%) 29,942
2019 3.2% (3.0%, 3.4%) 30,760 3.2% (2.9%, 3.5%) 16,580 3.6% (3.4%, 3.8%) 28,679
2020 3.7% (3.5%, 3.9%) 29,002 3.5% (3.2%, 3.8%) 15,034 3.7% (3.5%, 3.9%) 25,488
Wales (3yr moving average)            
2014 n/a 684 n/a 482 n/a 867
2015 n/a 1,187 n/a 865 n/a 1,615
2016 6.3% (5.2%, 7.4%) 1,622 6.2% (5.0%, 7.4%) 1,181 7.2% (6.3%, 8.1%) 2,270
2017 5.7% (4.6%, 6.8%) 1,416 4.7% (3.6%, 5.8%) 1,051 6.6% (5.6%, 7.6%) 2,038
2018 5.0% (4.0%, 6.0%) 1,438 4.0% (2.9%, 5.1%) 995 5.3% (4.4%, 6.2%) 1,960
2019 3.8% (2.9%, 4.7%) 1,501 4.3% (3.1%, 5.5%) 962 4.7% (3.9%, 5.5%) 1,923
2020 4.8% (3.8%, 5.8%) 1,478 4.3% (3.1%, 5.5%) 881 4.7% (3.8%, 5.6%) 1,768
Scotland (3yr moving average)            
2014 n/a 1,254 n/a 883 n/a 1,673
2015 n/a 2,284 n/a 1,533 n/a 2,993
2016 5.3% (4.6%, 6.0%) 3,200 5.2% (4.3%, 6.1%) 2,106 6.6% (5.9%, 7.3%) 4,151
2017 5.1% (4.4%, 5.8%) 2,919 5.3% (4.4%, 6.2%) 1,804 6.0% (5.3%, 6.7%) 3,666
2018 4.2% (3.5%, 4.9%) 2,816 3.8% (3.0%, 4.6%) 1,664 4.7% (4.1%, 5.3%) 3,435
2019 3.9% (3.3%, 4.5%) 2,893 3.8% (2.9%, 4.7%) 1,625 4.3% (3.7%, 4.9%) 3,307
2020 4.5% (3.8%, 5.2%) 2,742 3.4% (2.6%, 4.2%) 1,471 3.8% (3.2%, 4.4%) 2,874
Northern Ireland (3yr moving average)            
2014 n/a 280 n/a 445 n/a 1,673
2015 n/a 565 n/a 863 n/a 2,993
2016 4.2% (3.1%, 5.3%) 943 6.3% (5.2%, 7.4%) 1,397 6.0% (5.1%, 6.9%) 4,151
2017 4.0% (3.0%, 5.0%) 1,051 5.6% (4.6%, 6.6%) 1,432 4.0% (3.3%, 4.7%) 3,666
2018 3.3% (2.4%, 4.2%) 1,161 3.6% (2.7%, 4.5%) 1,492 5.0% (4.2%, 5.8%) 3,435
2019 3.1% (2.4%, 3.8%) 1,607 2.4% (1.8%, 3.0%) 1,869 4.5% (3.8%, 5.2%) 3,307
2020 3.3% (2.6%, 4.0%) 1,778 2.5% (1.9%, 3.1%) 1,893 4.8% (4.1%, 5.5%) 2,874

Note: 95% confidence intervals are shown in parentheses and sample sizes are unweighted. Figures for England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales individually are 3 year moving averages up to and including the year given (that is 2016 represents the average for 2014 to 2016).

Appendix Table B4: Change in the share of individuals in paid work between September 2019 and September 2020 by own occupation and socio-economic background, unweighted sample sizes and 95% confidence intervals.

All individuals Professional Jobs Intermediate Jobs Working Class Jobs
Occupational Background          
Professional -4.5% (-5.7%, -3.3%) -1.6% (-3.2%, 0.0%) -7.0% (-9.9%, -4.1%) -9.8% (-13.4%, -6.3%)  
(N 2020, N 2019) (10,886, 12,203) (5,025, 5,519) (1,586, 1,901) (1,087, 1,468)  
Intermediate -4.5% (-6.2%, -2.9%) -2.4% (-4.9%, 0.1%) -5.6% (-9.1%, -2.2%) -6.9% (-10.5%, -3.2%)  
(N 2020, N 2019) (5,564, 6,951) (2,028, 2,235) (1,021, 1,377) (940, 1,417)  
Working Class -4.2% (-5.5%, -2.9%) -2.1% (-4.3%, 0.0%) -4.7% (-7.5%, -1.9%) -8.5% (-11.1%, -5.9%)  
(N 2020, N 2019) (9,084, 11,496) (2,768, 3,113) (1,587, 2,049) (2,064, 2,882)  

Note: 95% confidence intervals are shown in parentheses and sample sizes are unweighted.

Appendix Table B5: Median earnings in 2019 by occupational background and own occupation, with 955 confidence intervals and unweighted sample sizes.

Professional Jobs Intermediate Jobs Working Class Jobs All Jobs N
All Backgrounds 38,012 (36,981, 39,043) 23,556 (22,580, 24,532) 21,996 (21,202, 22,790) 30,004 (29,718, 30,290) 3,625
Professional Backgrounds 39,988 (39,042, 40,934) 25,012 (23,040, 26,984) 22,984 (21,557, 24,411) 34,996 (33,883, 36,109) 1,515
Intermediate Backgrounds 38,012 (36,007, 40,017) 23,296 (21,498, 25,094) 21,996 (20,570, 23,422) 30,004 (28,858, 31,150) 799
Working Class Backgrounds 34,008 (32,432, 35,584) 22,724 (21,337, 24,111) 21,580 (20,469, 22,691) 26,988 (26,011, 27,965) 1,311

Note: 95% confidence intervals are shown in parentheses using the bootstrap method with 500 repetitions. Sample sizes are unweighted.

Appendix Table B6: Proportion of men and women aged 25 to 60 from different socio- economic backgrounds in different occupations, unweighted sample sizes and 95% confidence intervals.

Men

Professional Background N Working Class Background N
In Professional Jobs        
2014 61.1% (59.8%, 62.4%) 5,350 33.8% (32.6%, 35.0%) 6,319
2015 59.2% (57.7%, 60.6%) 4,492 33.8% (32.5%, 35.1%) 5,031
2016 62.4% (61.0%, 63.8%) 4,383 35.1% (33.7%, 36.5%) 4,541
2017 60.5% (59.1%, 62.0%) 4,516 34.8% (33.4%, 36.1%) 4,710
2018 61.8% (60.3%, 63.2%) 4,146 35.4% (34.0%, 36.9%) 4,239
2019 64.0% (62.5%, 65.4%) 4,452 37.0% (35.6%, 38.5%) 4,323
2020 65.1% (63.6%, 66.6%) 3,762 39.9% (38.3%, 41.6%) 3,340
In Working Class Jobs        
2014 17.7% (16.7%, 18.7%) 5,350 39.2% (38.0%, 40.4%) 6,319
2015 19.3% (18.2%, 20.5%) 4,492 38.4% (37.1%, 39.8%) 5,031
2016 18.0% (16.8%, 19.1%) 4,383 38.1% (36.7%, 39.5%) 4,541
2017 17.9% (16.8%, 19.0%) 4,516 39.5% (38.1%, 40.9%) 4,710
2018 16.9% (15.8%, 18.1%) 4,146 37.9% (36.4%, 39.3%) 4,239
2019 16.3% (15.3%, 17.4%) 4,452 36.2% (34.8%, 37.6%) 4,323
2020 15.2% (14.1%, 16.4%) 3,762 34.3% (32.7%, 35.9%) 3,340

Women

Professional Background N Working Class Background N
In Professional Jobs        
2014 54.7% (53.5%, 56.0%) 6,259 30.3% (29.2%, 31.3%) 7,127
2015 53.0% (51.6%, 54.4%) 5,095 30.7% (29.5%, 31.9%) 5,740
2016 54.0% (52.6%, 55.5%) 4,780 31.7% (30.5%, 33.0%) 5,151
2017 54.8% (53.4%, 56.1%) 5,128 32.2% (30.9%, 33.4%) 5,270
2018 54.8% (53.4%, 56.2%) 4,691 34.1% (32.7%, 35.4%) 4,799
2019 55.5% (54.1%, 56.9%) 4,999 34.7% (33.3%, 36.1%) 4,679
2020 58.1% (56.6%, 59.6%) 4,344 36.2% (34.6%, 37.7%) 3,687
In Working Class Jobs        
2014 15.4% (14.5%, 16.3%) 6,259 32.0% (30.9%, 33.1%) 7,127
2015 14.9% (13.9%, 15.9%) 5,095 31.6% (30.4%, 32.8%) 5,740
2016 15.0% (14.0%, 16.0%) 4,780 31.2% (29.9%, 32.5%) 5,151
2017 14.8% (13.8%, 15.7%) 5,128 30.7% (29.4%, 31.9%) 5,270
2018 14.3% (13.3%, 15.3%) 4,691 31.1% (29.7%, 32.4%) 4,799
2019 15.1% (14.2%, 16.1%) 4,999 28.3% (27.0%, 29.6%) 4,679
2020 13.4% (12.4%, 14.4%) 4,344 27.7% (26.3%, 29.2%) 3,687

Note: 95% confidence intervals are shown in parentheses and sample sizes are unweighted.

Alternative Appendix Table B6: Proportion of men and women aged 25 to 60 from different socio-economic backgrounds in different occupations, unweighted sample sizes and 95% confidence intervals.

Professional Jobs Intermediate Jobs Working Class Jobs Not Working N
Men from professional background 65.1% (63.6%, 66.6%) 16.4% (15.2%, 17.6%) 15.2% (14.1%, 16.4%) 3.2% (2.7%, 3.8%) 3,762
Women from professional background 58.1% (56.6%, 59.6%) 22.5% (21.3%, 23.8%) 13.4% (12.4%, 14.4%) 6.0% (5.3%, 6.7%) 4,344
Men from working class background 39.9% (38.3%, 41.6%) 19.0% (17.7%, 20.3%) 34.3% (32.7%, 35.9%) 6.8% (5.9%, 7.6%) 3,340
Women from working class background 36.2% (34.6%, 38.3%) 25.8% (24.4%, 27.3%) 27.7% (26.3%, 29.2%) 10.2% (9.3%, 11.2%) 3,687

Note: 95% confidence intervals are shown in parentheses. Sample sizes are unweighted.

Appendix Table B7: Change in the share of individuals in paid work between September 2019 and September 2020 by age group, gender and socio-economic background, unweighted sample sizes and 95% confidence intervals.

Men

All Age 16 to 24 Age 25 to 34 Age 35 to 49 Age 50 to 64
Professional -5.2% (-6.9%, -3.5%) -7.1% (-11.7%, -2.6%) -6.5% (-9.8%, -3.1%) -4.2% (-6.7%, -1.7%) -2.7% (-5.8%, 0.4%)
(N 2020, N 2019) (5,138, 5,788) (902, 967) (889, 1,181) (1,624, 1,894) (1,723, 1,746)
Intermediate -5.3% (-7.6%, -3.1%) -11.9% (-19.1%, -4.6%) -5.2% (-9.8%, -0.6%) -1.1% (-4.6%, 2.4%) -6.0% (-9.9%, -2.1%)
(N 2020, N 2019) (2,583, 3,289) (290, 412) (387, 571) (792, 1,147) (1,114, 1,159)
Working Class -4.6% (-6.5%, -2.8%) -8.7% (-14.7%, -2.7%) -2.6% (-6.7%, 1.5%) -4.9% (-7.9%, -1.9%) -3.5% (-6.3%, -0.7%)
(N 2020, N 2019) (4,342, 5,543) (433, 626) (525, 894) (1,239, 1,678) (2,145, 2,345)

Women

All Age 16 to 24 Age 25 to 34 Age 35 to 49 Age 50 to 64
Professional -3.7% (-5.5%, -3.7%) -7.7% (-12.3%, -3.1%) -3.7% (-7.4%, 0.1%) -1.9% (-4.8%, 2.9%) -1.9% (-5.1%, 1.2%)
(N 2020, N 2019) (5,748, 6,415) (866, 955) (1,030, 1,386) (1,890, 2,181) (1,962, 1,893)
Intermediate -3.7% (-6.0%, -1.3%) -5.9% (-13.4%, 1.5%) 0.9% (-4.7%, 6.4%) -4.1% (-8.1%, 0.0%) -4.2% (-7.9%, -0.4%)
(N 2020, N 2019) (2,981, 3,662) (291, 396) (451, 695) (927, 1,228) (1,312, 1,343)
Working Class -3.6% (-5.2%, -1.7%) -4.4% (-10.5%, 1.7%) -0.5% (-5.2%, 4.2%) -4.0% (-7.3%, -0.6%) -4.5% (-7.4%, -1.7%)
(N 2020, N 2019) (4,742, 5,953) (382, 639) (647, 994) (1,365, 1,894) (2,348, 2,426)

Note: 95% confidence intervals are shown in parentheses and sample sizes are unweighted.

Appendix Table B8: Proportion of individuals with and without disabilities aged 25 to 60 from different socio-economic backgrounds in different occupations, unweighted sample sizes and 95% confidence intervals.

Professional Jobs Intermediate Jobs Working Class Jobs Not Working N
People without disabilities from professional background 64.7% (63.6%, 65.9%) 19.4% (18.5%, 20.3%) 13.3% (12.5%, 14.1%) 2.6% (2.2%, 3.0%) 6,778
People with disabilities from professional background 45.0% (42.3%, 47.7%) 20.0% (17.8%, 22.1%) 19.8% (17.6%, 21.9%) 15.3% (13.3%, 17.2%) 1,307
People without disabilities from working class background 42.0% (40.7%, 43.3%) 23.4% (22.3%, 24.5%) 31.2% (29.9%, 32.4%) 3.4% (3.0%, 3.9%) 5,452
People with disabilities from working class background 24.4% (22.3%, 26.5%) 19.3% (17.3%, 21.2%) 30.4% (28.1%, 32.7%) 26.0% (23.8%, 28.1%) 1,558

Note: 95% confidence intervals are shown in parentheses. Sample sizes are unweighted.

Appendix Table B9: Percentage of people from different backgrounds in professional occupations by ethnicity (2014 to 2020), sample sizes and 95% confidence intervals.

Professional Background N Working Class Background N
White 59.7% (59.3%, 60.1%) 58,290 34.1% (33.7%, 34.5%) 62,475
Chinese 64.8% (60.4%, 69.1%) 460 47.6% (41.4%, 53.9%) 247
Indian 62.1% (60.0%, 64.2%) 2,039 44.5% (41.9%, 47.1%) 1,444
Mixed Ethnicity 61.0% (57.5%, 64.5%) 743 39.6% (35.3%, 43.9%) 505
Black Caribbean 49.8% (44.6%, 55.0%) 353 34.3% (31.0%, 37.6%) 786
Other Ethnicity 49.7% (46.9%, 52.6%) 1,173 29.6% (26.5%, 32.8%) 798
Other Asian 48.8% (45.4%, 52.2%) 844 30.2% (26.2%, 34.2%) 506
Black African 44.3% (41.5%, 47.1%) 1,200 32.4% (28.6%, 36.1%) 599
Pakistani 36.4% (33.3%, 39.5%) 912 25.4% (22.9%, 27.9%) 1,151
Bangladeshi 33.2% (28.2%, 38.2%) 342 24.2% (20.1%, 28.3%) 417

Note: 95% confidence intervals are shown in parentheses using the bootstrap method with 500 repetitions. Sample sizes are unweighted.

Appendix Table B10: Change in the share of 16 to 24 year olds in different forms of economic activity between September 2019 and September 2020 by socio-economic background, unweighted sample sizes and 95% confidence intervals.

Professional Background N Working Class Background N
White 59.7% (59.3%, 60.1%) 58,290 34.1% (33.7%, 34.5%) 62,475
Chinese 64.8% (60.4%, 69.1%) 460 47.6% (41.4%, 53.9%) 247
Indian 62.1% (60.0%, 64.2%) 2,039 44.5% (41.9%, 47.1%) 1,444
Mixed Ethnicity 61.0% (57.5%, 64.5%) 743 39.6% (35.3%, 43.9%) 505
Black Caribbean 49.8% (44.6%, 55.0%) 353 34.3% (31.0%, 37.6%) 786
Other Ethnicity 49.7% (46.9%, 52.6%) 1,173 29.6% (26.5%, 32.8%) 798
Other Asian 48.8% (45.4%, 52.2%) 844 30.2% (26.2%, 34.2%) 506
Black African 44.3% (41.5%, 47.1%) 1,200 32.4% (28.6%, 36.1%) 599
Pakistani 36.4% (33.3%, 39.5%) 912 25.4% (22.9%, 27.9%) 1,151
Bangladeshi 33.2% (28.2%, 38.2%) 342 24.2% (20.1%, 28.3%) 417

Note: 95% confidence intervals are shown in parentheses and sample sizes are unweighted.

Additional methodological notes from charts in the main body of the text

Figure 2.7: Child income poverty rates (after housing costs) UK, England and by English regions – 1996/1997 to 1998/1999 to 2017/2018 to 2019/2020 (three-year moving averages).

  • figures are for the United Kingdom from 2002 to 2003 to 2004 to 2005 onwards. Earlier years are for Great Britain only
  • this report and tables use grossing factors based on 2011 Census data, so caution should be exercised when making comparisons with reports prior to 2012 to 2013
  • the all children figures here are three-year averages and are therefore not directly comparable with the totals in the main tables
  • for the 2019 to 2020 statistics, a minor methodological revision has been made to capture all income from child maintenance. This results in more income from child maintenance being included, in turn slightly increasing some household incomes and so tending to slightly reduce low income rates for families with children. The full back series (back to 1994 to 1995) has been revised so that comparisons over time are on a consistent basis across the full time series. This also means that figures for 1994 to 1995 to 2018 to 2019 in this year’s publication (2019 to 2020 statistics) may be slightly different to the equivalent figures in previous publications. Please refer to HBAI Quality & Methodology Report for more information

Annex C – National Benchmarks

In 2021, the Social Mobility Commission produced national benchmarks setting out what percentages of each of the socio-economic background categories (professional, intermediate and lower socio-economic background) are found in the working population (age 16+) and in different sectors.

These are aimed at employers, who can use them to see how their own diversity and inclusion of people from different socio-economic backgrounds compares with the national and sector socio-economic background benchmarks. These benchmarks can also be used to monitor social mobility trends over time.

The national benchmarks are not included in the main analysis of the report due to definitional differences. These include:

  • at the time of producing the analysis for the report, only the three-digit SOC code (Standard Occupation Classification) version of the LFS was available. However, the Social Mobility Commission has more recently undertaken analysis to produce the national benchmarks using the four-digit SOC code. A review has found that using the four-digit codes provides additional detail and allows for a more accurate allocation of jobs to socio-economic profession
  • the analysis in the majority of this report is for those aged 25 to 60 to replicate our analysis for the 2018 State of the Nation report for the UK and its constituent countries. In comparison, the national benchmarks are for all those aged 16+
  • in this report, individuals are excluded from the analysis where parental occupation is missing or uncertain, or where parent(s) were not working. This applies to about 5% of cases. This matches the approach in the 2018 to 2019 State of the Nation report. Further information on this group can be found in Annex A. In our national benchmarks ‘those who have never worked’ when reporting parental background are included in the definition of ‘working class’, to target employer behaviour to address this subset of disadvantage
  • 2019 data is used in the national benchmarks due to the uncertainty of the 2020 data as a result of the pandemic and recognising that trends seen in 2020 may not continue

Due to these differences, direct comparisons between the analysis in this report and the national benchmarks cannot be made at this time. However, the national benchmarks for each of the countries are included below for completeness.

Of those aged 16+ in the workforce in the UK, 37% came from professional backgrounds. This is a similar picture for England and Scotland. Northern Ireland and Wales have a smaller proportion of their workforce from professional backgrounds.

Figure C.1: National benchmark for the UK – socio-economic background of the overall UK workforce aged 16+.

Socio-economic background National benchmark for UK
Professional 37%
Intermediate 24%
Working class 39%

Source: Office for National Statistics licensed under the Open Government Licence v.3.0

Note (applicable to all charts below): The National Statistics Socio-economic Classification (NS-SEC) distribution was identified by mapping the four-digit standard occupation classification (SOC) category (or occupation group) of the main wage earner when the survey respondent was 14 to NS-SEC. See annex B in this guidance for further information.

Figure C.2: National benchmark for England – socio-economic background of the overall workforce in England aged 16+.

Socio-economic background National benchmark for England
Professional 37%
Intermediate 24%
Working class 39%

Source: Office for National Statistics licensed under the Open Government Licence v.3.0

Figure C.3: National benchmark for Northern Ireland – socio-economic background of the overall workforce in Northern Ireland aged 16+.

Socio-economic background National benchmark for Northern Ireland
Professional 25%
Intermediate 31%
Working class 44%

Source: Office for National Statistics licensed under the Open Government Licence v.3.0

Figure C.4: National benchmark for Scotland – socio-economic background of the overall workforce in Scotland aged 16+.

Socio-economic background National benchmark for Scotland
Professional 37%
Intermediate 21%
Working class 42%

Source: Office for National Statistics licensed under the Open Government Licence v.3.0

Figure C.5: National benchmark for Wales – socio-economic background of the overall workforce in Wales aged 16+.

Socio-economic background National benchmark for Wales
Professional 32%
Intermediate 24%
Working class 44%

Source: Office for National Statistics licensed under the Open Government Licence v.3.0